Prevalence and determinants of probable depression and anxiety during the COVID-19 pandemic in seven countries: Longitudinal evidence from the European COvid Survey (ECOS)

Abstract

Background Our aim was to present data on the prevalence of probable depression and anxiety and to determine their correlates during the COVID-19 pandemic in seven European countries using a longitudinal approach. Methods Longitudinal data (wave 4 in November 2020: n= 7,115; wave 5 in January 2021: n=7,068; wave 6 in April 2021: n=7,204) were taken from the European COvid Survey (ECOS), a representative sample of non-institutionalized inhabitants from Germany, United Kingdom, Denmark, Netherlands, France, Portugal and Italy aged 18+. Probable depression and anxiety were quantified using the established and validated PHQ-4 (2-item depression scale, PHQ-2 / 2-item anxiety scale, GAD-2). Results In wave 4 (wave 5; wave 6), 26.6% (25.5%; 23.8%) of all respondents had probable depression and 25.7% (23.6%; 22.1%) had probable anxiety. Prevalence rates for probable depression and probable anxiety differed significantly between countries. Among all countries and waves, particularly high prevalence rates were found among individuals aged 18 to 29 years. Longitudinal analysis showed that the likelihood of probable depression was positively associated with increasing age, great income difficulties and lower health-related quality of life. The likelihood of probable anxiety was positively associated with income difficulties, and lower health-related quality of life. Limitations Screening tool was used to quantify the outcomes. Conclusion The magnitude of probable depression and anxiety during the COVID-19 pandemic in European countries was highlighted. Moreover, determining the factors associated with probable depression or anxiety (e.g., income difficulties, worse health-related quality of life) may assist in identifying individuals at increased risk.

The Effect of the COVID-19 Pandemic on the Assessment of Sexual Life—Repeated Cross-Sectional Surveys among Polish Adults in 2017, 2020 and 2021

“…Only a few national (and, in the light of available knowledge, also foreign) papers already published deal with cross-sectional studies repeated during the pandemic [ 34 ]. There are also a few very unique longitudinal studies [ 5 , 32 ]. International projects, the results of which are just beginning to be announced, have to be considered a valuable initiative [ 23 , 35 ].…”

“…A significant number of the above components of sexual life were analyzed in relation to the pandemic period [ 20 , 21 , 22 , 23 , 24 , 25 , 26 , 27 , 28 ]. The contributions came from various countries, including Poland [ 19 , 25 , 29 , 30 , 31 , 32 , 33 , 34 ], sometimes based on multi-country projects [ 8 , 23 , 35 ].…”

The Role of Developmental Assets in Gender Differences in Anxiety in Spanish Youth

“…In Spain, data from the Health National Survey in 2017 indicated that in the sample aged 15–24, 1.1% of men and 3% of women suffered from anxiety, while in the sample aged 25–34, this percentage increased to 3.6% in men and 5.9% in women ( 32 ). During the COVID-19 pandemic, an increase in anxiety has been observed in the youth population ( 33 – 35 ). Racine et al ( 36 ) have concluded, in a recent meta-analysis of 29 studies including 80,879 youths globally, that the prevalence of anxiety symptoms during the pandemic has doubled, with 1 in 5 youths experiencing clinically elevated anxiety symptoms.…”

Prevalence and associated factors of depressive symptoms among the young adults during the post-epidemic period — Evidence from the first wave of COVID-19 in Hubei Province, China

“…This is because young adults are more precarious, less resilient and less socially supportive, and the disruption brought on by the COVID-19 epidemic exacerbates loneliness and financial distress among young adults, bringing more prevalent depressive symptoms ( Jinhee et al, 2021 ; Varma et al, 2021 ). Specifically, the reasons for this consequence mainly include: 1)Young adults are more vulnerable to social support and economic status than other groups, and are more difficult to cope with the impact of the epidemic, especially inflation and employment pressure ( Hajek et al, 2022 ; Hsiang et al, 2020 ; Varma et al, 2021 ); 2)Young adults tend to have high levels of attention to the outbreak but less mature cognition than older adults ( Wierenga et al, 2021 ), and are more likely to have negative expectations about the prospect for the epidemic and socioeconomic development, which increases their likelihood of developing depressive symptoms ( Amicucci et al, 2021 ; Bucciarelli et al, 2022 ; Gallagher et al, 2021 ; I & K, 2021 ; She et al, 2022 ); 3)Many young adults in Hubei Province participated in volunteer work in combatting COVID-19 epidemic, concerns about infection during frontline work may make them depressed, and the experience of contracting COVID-19 may also increase their probability of developing depressive symptoms ( Balakrishnan et al, 2022 ; Bucciarelli et al, 2022 ; Pera, 2020 ; Yu et al, 2021 ); and 4)Young adults have higher cross-regional mobility due to work or schooling, as the residents of the earliest eye of epidemic storm, they may experience more discrimination and distrust after order is restored in the post-pandemic period, which likely to worsen their social relationships and cause loneliness, stress and depression ( Espinoza & Hernandez, 2022 ; Siu, 2008b ).…”

“…Furthermore, the cognition and experience of the COVID-19 epidemic may have a negative impact on the psychological state of young adults and even lead to depression during the outbreak, and this effect may continue into the post-epidemic period ( Ebrahimi et al, 2022 ; Gallagher et al, 2021 ). In addition, social connections, employment, and financial stress may exacerbate depressive symptoms in young adults in the post-pandemic period ( Hajek et al, 2022 ; I & K, 2021 ; Jinhee et al, 2021 ). In the post-epidemic period, paying attention to the psychological status and demands of the young adults, strengthening psychological intervention and providing policy support can help the young adults participate in economic recovery and reconstruction.…”