Prevalence and Risk Factors of Human Herpes Virus Type 8 (HHV-8), Human Immunodeficiency Virus-1 (HIV-1), and Syphilis among Female Sex Workers in Malindi, Kenya

Abstract

The prevalence of Human Herpes Virus type 8 (HHV-8), Human Immunodeficiency virus (HIV), and syphilis is high in Sub-Saharan Africa. Studies on HHV-8 in Kenya are few and data on its coinfection with HIV and syphilis scanty. This cross-sectional study among female sex workers (FSWs) in Malindi, Kenya, aimed to determine the prevalence of HHV-8, HIV, and syphilis mono/coinfections and identify associated risk factors. A total of 268 FSWs consented and were administered a structured questionnaire and screened for antibodies against HHV-8, HIV, and syphilis following the National Guidelines. FSWs positive for HHV-8 were 67/268 (25%), HIV 44/268 (16.4%), and 6/268 (2.24%) for syphilis. Eight out of 67 (12%) tested positive for HHV-8/HIV and 2/67 (3%) for HHV-8/syphilis coinfections. Married FSWs had higher odds of HHV-8 infection (OR 2.90, 95%, and P=0.043). Single marital status was inversely associated (OR 0.46, 95% CI 0.23-0.94, and P=0.034) with HIV infection. HIV was associated with increasing age (OR 14.79, P<0.001), inconsistent condom use (OR 2.69, P=0.004), increased duration as sex worker ≥6 (OR 3.0, P=0.002) and clients ≥4 (OR 4.0, P<0.001), intravenous drug use (OR 2.5, P=0.043), and early sex debut (P=0.049) unlike HHV-8 which was not associated with high risk sexual behavior. HHV-8/HIV coinfection was associated with increasing age (OR 11.21, P=0.027). Infection by HHV-8 was not significantly associated with HIV (OR 0.62; P=0.257) or syphilis (OR 1.52; P=0.636). There was a high likelihood of infection with HHV-8 compared to HIV (OR 8.6, P=0.014) and syphilis (OR 14.6, P<0.001). The lack of association of HHV-8 with high risk sexual behavior suggests that sexual transmission may not play a significant role in transmission of HHV-8 among FSWs in Malindi.

Seroprevalence and Associated Factors of Human Immunodeficiency Virus, Treponema pallidum, Hepatitis B Virus, and Hepatitis C Virus among Female Sex Workers in Dessie City, Northeast Ethiopia

“…In the current study, seroprevalence of HIV infection and T. pallidum among FSWs was 27/360 (7.5%) and 45 (12.5%), respectively. In similar studies that have been conducted in Brazil, Panama, Kenya, and Democratic Republic of Congo [15,16,31,32], the prevalence of T. pallidum was lower than that of the current study. Another study in Brazil revealed the seroprevalence of HIV was almost in agreement with the present study whereas the prevalence of T. pallidum (19.7%) was high [11].…”

“…Based on the published articles in different parts of the globe, the prevalence of HIV among FSWs ranges from 0.9% to 73.7% [4,18,19]. The prevalence of HCV, HBV, and T. pallidum was also significant in such kind of population group [13][14][15]. Similarly, a study conducted among FSWs in Rwanda indicated 51.1%, 2.5%, and 1.4% overall prevalence for syphilis, HBV, and HCV, respectively [18].…”

“…Their infections and other STIs like gonorrhea, human herpes virus (HHV), and human simplex virus (HSV) are the most important infectious diseases in developing and developed countries [8][9][10][11][12][13][14]. Although sexual contact is the prime mode of transmission, they are also transmitted through exposure to infected body fluids and from mother to fetus or child during the prenatal period [9,15,16]. Different risky behaviors and sexual behaviors make the community particularly the youth at the greatest possibility to acquire some of the most prominent STIs like HIV, HBV, and HCV [17].…”

“…Sexually transmitted infections are prevalent in Ethiopia and elsewhere among different population groups particularly among FSWs. Their prevalence among FSWs was associated with different factors such as having genital sore, age, marital status, educational level, duration as FSW, early sexual debut, and number of clients [15,18,19]. In sub-Saharan Africa, the estimated proportions of FSWs among women were 0.4% to 4.3% with the possibility of changing the figure through the course of time [20].…”

Seroprevalence of Herpes Simplex Virus Type 2 and Human Herpesvirus Type 8 among Prostate Cancer Patients Compared to Cancer-Free Men

“…The highest incidence of the virus is in sub-Saharan Africa with 36 to 60% (24). The majority of the available studies reported the seroprevalence of the virus among high-risk populations, including the men who have sex with men (MSMs) or HIV-positives; however, the incidence of the virus in the healthy population has not been well documented (25)(26)(27). The HHV-8 seroprevalence in healthy populations was reported to be 1.3 to 4.4% in Southeast Asia and the Caribbean (28) and 7.3% in the United States (29).…”