Prevalence of Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Among Repatriated Indonesian Migrant Workers During the COVID-19 Pandemic

Abstract

Introduction: Repatriated Indonesian migrant workers are vulnerable to developing serious mental health problems during the COVID-19 pandemic. This study aimed to assess the prevalence and associated factors of depression, anxiety, and stress among these populations during the COVID-19 pandemic.Methods: Guided by the health belief model, a cross-sectional study design was employed among 335 participants, and primary data were collected through an online survey. Measured using DASS-21, anxiety, depression, and stress were the dependent variables. We performed descriptive and inferential statistical analyses—logistic regression was used to predict independently associated variables. STATA was used to execute all data analyses.Results: The prevalence of depression, anxiety, and stress among repatriated Indonesian migrant workers were 10.15, 9.25, and 2.39%, respectively. The risk of anxiety and depression was low among those aged 21–30 years old, who had completed a university degree, were married, and had quarantined for 14 days. Conversely, the risk of anxiety and depression was high among those who had bad perceived health status, high perceived susceptibility, and negative stigma perception.Conclusion: The prevalence of depression, anxiety, and stress among repatriated Indonesian migrant workers was relatively low compared to the general population. The risk of anxiety and depression was low among young people, educated people, and those under effective quarantine, but the risk was high among those who had negative perceptions about their health, stigma, and susceptibility to the disease.

A systematic review and meta-analysis on the prevalence of stigma in infectious diseases, including COVID-19: a call to action

“…There were 16 studies from Africa [ 14 , 24 , 59 , 68 – 73 , 75 – 79 , 84 , 88 ], 25 studies from Asia [ 22 , 60 , 61 , 64 – 66 , 74 , 80 , 81 , 83 , 86 , 87 , 90 – 95 , 97 – 99 , 101 , 102 , 104 , 105 ], and others were conducted in Europe [ 67 , 89 , 96 ], North America [ 62 , 63 , 85 , 100 , 103 ] and South America [ 82 ]. More than half (27 studies) of the studies were conducted within community populations [ 22 , 60 , 66 , 69 – 72 , 74 , 76 , 79 – 81 , 83 , 85 – 88 , 90 , 91 , 93 , 95 , 99 – 104 ], while others consisted of health care workers (13 studies) [ 60 , 61 , 63 , 64 , 67 , 77 , 78 , 84 , 89 , 92 , 94 , 96 , 105 ] and patients (eight studies) [ 14 , …”

“…More than half (27 studies) of the studies were conducted within community populations [ 22 , 60 , 66 , 69 – 72 , 74 , 76 , 79 – 81 , 83 , 85 – 88 , 90 , 91 , 93 , 95 , 99 – 104 ], while others consisted of health care workers (13 studies) [ 60 , 61 , 63 , 64 , 67 , 77 , 78 , 84 , 89 , 92 , 94 , 96 , 105 ] and patients (eight studies) [ 14 , 24 , 59 , 68 , 73 , 75 , 97 , 98 ]. Of the 50 articles, 10 studies [ 24 , 59 , 73 , 75 , 80 , 82 , 85 , 91 , 97 , 105 ] used modified scales for measuring stigma, while other studies measured the stigma by using one or more questions [ 14 , 22 , 60 – 72 , 74 , 76 – 79 , 81 , 83 , 84 , 86 – 90 , 92 – 96 , 98 – 104 ] (Table 1 ).…”

“… Goulia et al, 2010 67 Greece Cross sectional A/H1N1 influenza Perceived stigma 469 469 Health care workers 68.4 3.8 Items: I felt that family members and friends avoided them because of their hospital work Grace et al, 2005 [ 63 ] Canada Cross sectional SARS Perceived stigma 193 193 Health care workers 32.1 35.8 Items: Physicians felt that they had been treated differently because others knew they had potentially been exposed to a SARS patient (i.e., stigmatization) Greene et al, 2021 [ 89 ] UK Cross sectional COVID-19 Perceived stigma 1194 1194 Health care workers 92.4 36.5 Items: Feeling moderately to extremely stigmatized Gregorio et al, 2019 [ 22 ] Philippines Cross sectional Zika Perceived stigma 609 609 Teaching staffs 68.5 42.2* Items: (1) If a person gets Zika, he/she is discriminated or stigmatized because of it; (2) If a person gets Zika, his/ her family is discriminated or stigmatized because of it; (3) If somebody in my family were to get Zika, I would want it to remain private or a secret. Harjana et al, 2021 [ 90 ] Indonesia Cross sectional COVID-19 Perceived stigma 335 335 Community population 19.4 53.43 Items: Items about social support, social trust, perceived stigma, and experience on the COVID-19 test and quarantine were also adopted from previous studies Jalloh et al, 2017a [ 69 ] Guinea Cross sectional Ebola Enacted stigma 5733 5029 Community population 49.0 …”

Clinical features and outcomes of COVID-19 and dengue co-infection: a systematic review

“…Additionally, many people move across the land border into Thailand every day, posing an immediate threat to the local population through transmission of COVID-19 [ 43 ]. In Bhutan and Indonesia, there are mounting reports of cases associated with the non-stop repatriation of migrant workers from the worst affected countries [ 42 , 44 ]. India was one of the most hard hit countries by COVID-19 globally and ranks second in terms of cumulative cases and third in terms of cumulative deaths [ 45 ].…”

“…India was one of the most hard hit countries by COVID-19 globally and ranks second in terms of cumulative cases and third in terms of cumulative deaths [ 45 ]. Widespread distribution of both cases and deaths are now evident in the region [ 4 , 44 , 46 ]. Countries in Latin America, such as Brazil, have witnessed extensive dengue outbreaks over the last three decades.…”