Prevalence of Metabolic Syndrome and Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease among Premenopausal and Postmenopausal Women in Ho Municipality: A Cross‐Sectional Study

Abstract

Background and Objectives. The prevalence of the metabolic syndrome (MetS) and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is increasing worldwide. MetS-affected individuals stand the risk of coronary heart disease, stroke, and increased cardiovascular mortality while NAFLD results in advanced liver diseases, such as liver fibrosis, cirrhosis, and hepatocellular carcinoma, if not diagnosed and treated on time. This study is aimed at determining the prevalence of MetS and NAFLD among premenopausal and postmenopausal women in Ho Municipality. Methods. A cross-sectional study was conducted among 185 participants: 88 premenopausal and 97 postmenopausal women obtaining healthcare service from Ho Teaching Hospital (HTH) and Ho Municipal Hospital from November 2018 to January 2020. Questionnaires were administered, and direct anthropometric measurements were taken. Blood samples were collected between 8:00 am and 10:00 am after overnight fast (12 to 18 hours; ≥8 hours) to assess fasting blood glucose, fasting lipids, alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), and gamma-glutamyl transferase (GGT) concentrations at HTH laboratory using standard measuring procedures. This study in diagnosing metabolic syndrome and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease employed the National Cholesterol Education Program Adult Treatment Panel III (NCEP-ATPIII) criteria and the Bedogni fatty liver index algorithm, respectively. Results. The overall prevalence of MetS and NAFLD was 24.86% and 40.00% using NCEP-ATPIII and Bedogni fatty liver index algorithm, respectively. The prevalence of MetS and NAFLD among postmenopausal women was 32.99% and 49.48%, respectively, higher than 15.91% and 29.55%, respectively, observed among premenopausal women. The most prevalent MetS component among the study population was abdominal obesity (68.65%) which was significantly higher among the postmenopausal women (82.47%) than premenopausal women (53.41%) (<0.001). Hyperglycemia and hypertension were the major significant risk factors for developing MetS among premenopausal women whereas high triglyceride was the highest risk factor found among the postmenopausal women. Obesity and abdominal obesity were the most likely risk factors for developing nonalcoholic fatty liver disease among both premenopausal and postmenopausal women. Comorbidities of MetS and NAFLD were significant risk factors for developing cardiovascular diseases (CVD) (OR=5.2, 95%CI=2.2-12.4; p<0.001). Conclusion. This study established a significant association between coronary artery disease and comorbidities of MetS and NAFLD among the studied participants. Both conditions were found to be more prevalent among postmenopausal women compared to premenopausal women. Abdominal obesity was the most prevalent MetS component among the population. Women should be monitored for the two conditions and be educated on adopting healthy lifestyles to minimize the incidence of these conditions.

Reproductive factors and metabolic syndrome among Chinese women aged 40 years and older

“…That is likely due to the fact that the average age of the participants in our research was rather young (mean age = 56.7 years old). In terms of menopausal state, our findings are in line with some other studies reporting that the prevalence of MetS and its components was much more significant in postmenopausal women 61,62 . Menopause means not only the loss of reproductive potential but also an increased susceptibility to metabolic diseases, which are often accompanied by an increase in central adiposity, particularly visceral fat 63 .…”

“…In terms of menopausal state, our findings are in line with some other studies reporting that the prevalence of MetS and its components was much more significant in postmenopausal women. 61 , 62 Menopause means not only the loss of reproductive potential but also an increased susceptibility to metabolic diseases, which are often accompanied by an increase in central adiposity, particularly visceral fat. 63 Meanwhile, higher risks of significant CVD and all‐cause mortality also have been observed among postmenopausal women.…”

Polyphenol-Rich Extracts of Xylopia and Aframomum Species Show Metabolic Benefits by Lowering Hepatic Lipid Accumulation in Diet-Induced Obese Mice

“…MetS have received a lot of interest because of the increasing association with cardiovascular morbidity and mortality. 1 The definition of MetS includes high blood pressure (BP), high blood glucose concentration, increased waist circumference (WC), high triglycerides (TG), and low high-density lipoprotein (HDL). The liver (along with the kidney) is frequently and heavily involved, with the onset of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) actually recognized as the most familiar cause of chronic liver disease worldwide.…”

“…It is a cluster of risk factors that include abdominal obesity, hyperlipidemia, hyperglycemia, and hypertension. MetS have received a lot of interest because of the increasing association with cardiovascular morbidity and mortality . The definition of MetS includes high blood pressure (BP), high blood glucose concentration, increased waist circumference (WC), high triglycerides (TG), and low high-density lipoprotein (HDL).…”

The role of polymorphisms of <I>PNPLA3</I>, <I>MBOAT7</I>, and <I>TM6SF2</I> in the development of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease in metabolic syndrome

“…В настоящее время считается, что НАЖБП является печеночной манифестацией метаболического синдрома [2]. Безусловно, роль в развитии данного состояния играют несбалансированная диета, богатая углеводами и насыщенными жирными кислотами, а также низкая физическая активность, спо-собствующие набору избыточного веса в абдоминальной области [3]. Однако исследования последних 10 лет показывают, что функциональность белков, отвечающих за метаболизм жирных кислот, равно как и выраженность их экспрессии, могут вносить определенный вклад не только в развитие самой НАЖБП, но и в дальнейшую прогрессию данного состояния до фиброза и цирроза с возможной гепатоцеллюлярной карциномой [4].…”