Proactive and reactive responses to pregnancies resulting from sexual exploitation and abuse: an ecological model based on Haitian survivors’ experiences

Abstract

Purpose This paper aims to analyze the lived experience of seeking justice and reparations related to conceiving a peacekeeper-fathered child. Design/methodology/approach Based on 18 semi-structured qualitative interviews conducted across Haiti in 2017, the authors mapped the experiences of Haitian mothers of peacekeeper-fathered children onto the ecological framework, proposing prevention/response strategies at the micro, meso and macro levels. Findings The findings mainly focus on reporting and access to support. Reporting was sometimes discouraged by the peacekeeper fathers due to the fear of being reprimanded. Among women who did report, some were told that nothing could be done, as the peacekeeper returned to his home country. Disclosure fatigue was common among participants who formally reported their pregnancies/peacekeeper-fathered children, particularly when promises of employment or child support failed to materialize. Overall, there was widespread distrust and disillusionment with the UN’s reporting and support system. Originality/value To improve the UN’s sexual abuse and exploitation prevention/response system at the micro level, the authors propose addressing personal knowledge/attitudes/beliefs through scenario-based and contextually relevant peacekeeper training and addressing the sexual/reproductive health needs of women and girls in proximity to peacekeeping bases. At the meso level, the UN should improve trust in reporting. Efforts to do so should include mandatory third-party deoxyribonucleic acid testing and banking, streamlined reporting mechanisms and removing the practice of automatically repatriating implicated peacekeepers. At the macro level, the authors recommend investments to improve educational and economic opportunities for women and girls, as well as revamping policies that contribute to impunity and absolve peacekeepers and troop-contributing countries of their responsibilities to provide child support.

Care and support during maternity for mothers affected by modern slavery: A scoping review

“…Women survivors of or affected by modern slavery reported unfamiliarity with maternity care systems, lack of knowledge on how to access care ( Bick et al., 2017 ; Nightingale et al., 2020 ; Vahedi et al., 2022 ), and poor understanding of healthcare entitlements ( Bick et al., 2017 ). Barriers to access and engagement with maternity services included socioeconomic disadvantage ( Vahedi et al., 2022 ) in the form of unstable/inappropriate housing or homelessness ( Collins and Skarparis, 2020 ; Delap, 2019 ; Duff et al., 2015 ; Vahedi et al., 2022 ), lack of financial support ( Duff et al., 2015 ; Vahedi et al., 2022 ), reduced access to education ( Duff et al., 2015 ), vulnerability to social isolation ( Delap, 2019 ), and poverty ( Collins and Skarparis, 2020 ; Nightingale et al., 2020 ). Fear of partner's violence ( Duff et al., 2015 ) and restrictions placed on women's movements by traffickers ( Bick et al., 2017 Nightingale et al., 2020 ; Vahedi et al., 2022 ) were also identified as obstacles.…”

“…Barriers to access and engagement with maternity services included socioeconomic disadvantage ( Vahedi et al., 2022 ) in the form of unstable/inappropriate housing or homelessness ( Collins and Skarparis, 2020 ; Delap, 2019 ; Duff et al., 2015 ; Vahedi et al., 2022 ), lack of financial support ( Duff et al., 2015 ; Vahedi et al., 2022 ), reduced access to education ( Duff et al., 2015 ), vulnerability to social isolation ( Delap, 2019 ), and poverty ( Collins and Skarparis, 2020 ; Nightingale et al., 2020 ). Fear of partner's violence ( Duff et al., 2015 ) and restrictions placed on women's movements by traffickers ( Bick et al., 2017 Nightingale et al., 2020 ; Vahedi et al., 2022 ) were also identified as obstacles. Late pregnancy detection, substance and alcohol use, fear, lack of family and partner support, insufficient resources, and discontent with previous healthcare-related experiences were significant factors specifically impacting antenatal care seeking ( Parmley et al., 2019 ).…”

“…The identified studies mainly focussed on the barriers, challenges, and uncertainties regarding access and engagement with maternity services. Women experienced barriers to accessing care for a range of personal and organisational factors, found absence of continuity problematic, and were concerned about confidentiality and stigma ( Beckham, 2013 ; Beckham et al., 2015 ; Bick et al., 2017 ; Collins and Skarparis, 2020 ; Delap, 2019 ; Duff et al., 2015 ; Nightingale et al., 2020 ; Parmley et al., 2019 ; Vahedi et al., 2022 ). Although Nightingale et al.…”

“…The women's perspectives mainly covered the overall maternity journey ( Bick et al., 2017 ; Collins and Skarparis, 2020 ; Delap, 2019 ; Duff et al., 2015 ; Nightingale et al., 2020 ; Ruiz-Gonzalez et al., 2022 ; Vahedi et al., 2022 ), with no research exploring experiences of intrapartum and postnatal care specifically. Women's experiences of pregnancy were reported in four papers; these focussed on the sexual exploitation of survivors/victims in Tanzanian, Brazilian, and South African settings ( Beckham, 2013 ; Beckham et al., 2015 ; Alves de Oliveira et al., 2019 ; Parmley et al., 2019 ).…”

“It’s because We are ‘Loose Girls’ That’s why We had Children with MINUSTAH Soldiers”: A Qualitative Analysis of Stigma Experienced by Peacekeeper-Fathered Children and Their Mothers in Haiti

“…Like other CBOW who are subject to stigma on account of their mothers’ relationship with enemy soldiers/rebel groups, peacekeeper-fathered children are connected to the mothers’ history of SEA. However, unlike children born from sexual violence used as a tactic of war, some peacekeeper-fathered children are conceived through long-term transactional sex relationships, wherein the provision of goods and the male provider role obscure exploitative and abusive aspects of transactional relationships (particularly those involving minors) ( Mudgway, 2017 ; Simić & O’Brien, 2014 ; Vahedi et al, 2019 ; Vahedi, Lee, et al, 2021 ). Consequently, mothers of peacekeeper-fathered children are stereotyped as being promiscuous within the context of seeking out sexual relations with “white” or “lighter skin” peacekeepers for the purpose of procreating mixed-race children and achieving upward social mobility.…”