Processing of ilmenite into synthetic rutile using ball milling induced sulphurisation and carbothermic reduction

Mechanical activation and physicochemical factors controlling pyrometallurgical, hydrometallurgical, and electrometallurgical processing of titanium ore: A review

“…This step influences the efficiency, product quality, waste generation, and cost of subsequent unit operations. Milling increases the reaction rates by (Amade et al, 2009;Baba et al, 2013;Begin-Colin et al, 1994;Ren, Yang, and Shaw, 2000;Sasikumar et al, 2007;Subasinghe and Ratnayake, 2021;Tao et al, 2012;Tromans and Meech, 2001;Wei et al, 2009;Welham and Llewellyn, 1988): ➤ Increasing the specific surface area ➤ Breaking down crystalline structure (i.e., grain boundary disordering, polymorphic transformations, and creation of defects such as Schottky, Frenkel, or Wadsley defects along crystallographic shear planes) ➤ Promoting chemical reactions (i.e., mechanochemical reactions with order-disorder reactions and phase transformations, especially in oxides) ➤ Promoting surface amorphization.…”

“…Titanium dioxide is characterized by properties such as high transparency to visible light, iridescence, and high UV absorption. TiO2 therefore has diverse applications such as in pharmaceuticals, advanced ceramics, paints, porcelains, and rubber (Elsner, 2010;Subasinghe and Ratnayake, 2021;. The photocatalytic activity of TiO2 has been used in advanced applications such as photovoltaic cells, gas sensors, purification filters, and electro-ceramics (Bai et al, 2014;Wang and Lin, 2010).…”

“…The photocatalytic activity of TiO2 has been used in advanced applications such as photovoltaic cells, gas sensors, purification filters, and electro-ceramics (Bai et al, 2014;Wang and Lin, 2010). Titanium metal finds applications in the aerospace industries, and biomedical engineering such as prosthesis (Elsner, 2010;Subasinghe and Ratnayake, 2021). Titanium minerals cannot be directly used in any of these applications.…”

“…Processing high-grade feedstock (natural rutile) generates less waste compared to low-grade feedstock such as ilmenite and leucoxene and is the preferred feedstock in the titanium mineral processing industry. However, ilmenite and leucoxene became prominent feed materials to cater to the surging demand for titanium and its compounds due to the scarcity of natural rutile (Subasinghe and Ratnayake, 2021;Wang and Yuan, 2006).…”

Global distribution, genesis, exploitation, applications, production, and demand of industrial heavy minerals

“…Jayaraju ( 2004 ) examined the factors controlling the distribution of HMs along the southern tip of India and found that source rock composition, existing drainage pattern, topography, climate, and coastal processes play key roles in their formation and distribution. Similarly, the distribution of HM placer deposits along the eastern coast of Sri Lanka and India can be controlled by summer monsoon currents in the Indian Ocean (Shankar et al 2002 ; Amalan et al 2018 ; Subasinghe and Ratnayake 2021 ).…”