Production of Pure Vanadium: Industry Review and Feasibility Study of Electron Beam Melt Refining of V–Al Alloys

Abstract

The vanadium industry has experienced significant change over the last two decades with the emergence of vanadium redox flow batteries for grid-level energy storage, the growing demand for high-strength steel, and the selection of vanadium as a critical material in multiple countries. This review presents the status of the vanadium industry examining production processes and detailing facilities. The available information for each producer is presented including vanadium products and capacity. The production of pure vanadium is identified as a potential vulnerability for some nations where vanadium metal is needed in small, yet strategic, applications and globally only two producers of pure V were identified. One potential method to produce pure V is electron beam melt refining. Exploratory electron beam melt refining trials were performed on kilogram quantities of master (V-Al) alloys from the aerospace industry to explore the use of commercially available vanadium alloys to produce pure vanadium metal with minimal processing, as a means to mitigate potential risks.

Analysis of Hydrometallurgical Methods for Obtaining Vanadium Concentrates from the Waste by Chemical Production of Vanadium Pentoxide

“…Vanadium is an important strategic metal widely used in various fields of industry. In ferrous metallurgy, V in the form of ferrovanadium is used for steel alloying [ 1 , 2 , 3 ] and in non-ferrous metallurgy in aluminum-vanadium alloys for alloying titanium-based structural materials used in aerospace engineering (engines, fuselages of high-speed aircraft) [ 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 ]. In the chemical industry, vanadium compounds are used as catalysts [ 8 ].…”

“…Additionally, vanadium is extracted from coal [ 16 , 17 , 18 ], fly ash [ 19 , 20 ], spent catalysts [ 21 , 22 ], and other sources [ 23 ]. Titanomagnetite ores are processed to produce vanadium converter slag, from which vanadium pentoxide is obtained by chemical means [ 7 , 12 , 24 , 25 , 26 , 27 , 28 ].…”

“…Vanadium in converter slags is presented mainly in spinel (FeO·V 2 O 3 ) practically insoluble in acid solutions. Therefore, in order to convert vanadium into soluble forms, preliminary slag oxidation roasting is carried out [ 7 , 12 , 24 , 25 , 26 , 27 , 28 , 29 , 30 , 31 , 32 , 33 ].…”

“…During the alkaline roasting, the formation of toxic salts of hexavalent chromium CrO 4 2− [ 7 , 12 , 32 ] is possible. With this technology due to the complexity of disposal, exhausted sodium-containing solutions are thrown into the water basin polluting the environment.…”

“…With this technology due to the complexity of disposal, exhausted sodium-containing solutions are thrown into the water basin polluting the environment. Roasting of slag with calcium-containing additives (lime, limestone) is considered more environmentally friendly when vanadium in the spinel is forming acid-soluble phases CaV 2 O 6 , Ca 2 V 2 O 7 and Ca 3 V 2 O 8 [ 7 , 12 , 33 ].…”