Productivity and management ofPhytelephas aequatorialis(Arecaceae) in Ecuador

Abstract

Phytelephas aequatorialis is endemic to western Ecuador. Vegetable ivory (tagua, the hard endosperm) and leaves for thatch (cade) are harvested from the palm and commercialised. Export of vegetable ivory from Ecuador reached a value of 14 million US$ in 2011, making it the second most important product from native palms in the country. Vegetable ivory and leaves are harvested mainly from the wild, although the palm is occasionally cultivated. Most seeds harvested for vegetable ivory are collected from the ground. In times of high demand, however, some harvesters collect immature infructescences; these young seeds are of inferior quality and unsuitable for the fabrication of tagua discs for export. Premature harvest reduces the amount of fully mature, highquality seed leading to resource limitation for the processing industry that already is unable to satisfy international demand. Fruit production in lowland agroforestry systems strongly correlates to the level of exposure to light. The development of infructescences takes 3 years in the lowlands (≤93 m a.s.l.) and over 4 years on the Andean slopes at around 1400 m a.s.l. Data from 365 tagged individuals show that male palms produce significantly more leaves than female palms and palms growing in the shade produce fewer, but longer and higher quality leaves for thatch. Leaf harvest has little impact on leaf production, but substantially reduces fruit production. Natural regeneration of Phytelephas populations in pastures is negatively affected, rendering the survival of these populations problematic. Sustainable use and commercialization of the two partially exclusive and locally competing products tagua (vegetable ivory) and cade (leaves for thatch) must be carefully designed. Application of unsustainable practices in the harvest of seeds and leaves, population decline in pastures, and resource limitation in the processing industry represent the main challenges in the sustainable use of this valuable palm species in the future.

Post-Dispersal Seed Removal in a Large-Seeded Palm by Frugivore Mammals in Western Ecuador

“…This palm is common in disturbed non-forest habitats such as agroforestry systems or pastures where it is left standing for its economic value (Borgtoft Pedersen & Skov, 2001). However, populations in these altered habitats lack natural regeneration due to the high mortality of juveniles and sub adults (Brokamp et al, 2014;Vela´squez Runk, 1998). The absence of these cohorts may occur by mechanical removal or low tolerance to direct sunlight of the palm seedlings.…”

“…The seeds of P. aequatorialis, like those of other phytelephantoid palms, are the source of vegetable ivory because of their very hard texture and white color. They are used as a raw material in button and handicraft manufacturing, and their commerce has been a profitable industry in the region since the 19th century until today (Barfod et al, 1990;Brokamp et al, 2014;Mont ufar et al, 2013). The leaves of this palm, which are locally known as cade, are in turn harvested for thatch and are commercialized locally (Borchsenius & Moraes, 2006).…”

“…The leaves of this palm, which are locally known as cade, are in turn harvested for thatch and are commercialized locally (Borchsenius & Moraes, 2006). The exploitation of tagua from natural forests seems to be sustainable, whereas land conversion is a more severe threat to the species (Brokamp et al, 2014) and therefore, to its provisioning of income to the local human population.…”

“…Phytelephas aequatorialis is widely distributed in western Ecuador, which is a highly threatened region because of high rates of deforestation and land conversion (Sierra, 2013). The fruits and seeds of P. aequatorialis are an important food resource for many animals in the forest (Brokamp et al, 2014). In addition, the seeds of this palm are widely commercialized in the region for their white and hard endosperm also known as vegetable ivory (Barfod et al, 1990;Escobar et al, 2019;Mont ufar et al, 2013).…”

Demography and productivity during the recovery time sequence of a wild edible bamboo after large-scale anthropogenic disturbance

“…If we look at NTFPs, sudden decline and extinction can occur after large-scale anthropogenic disturbances. Indeed, many NTFPs that were once dominant species have now become endangered due to anthropogenic disturbances (e.g., [7,38,39]). For better management, we should examine the potential impacts of anthropogenic disturbances on as many NTFPs (including S. kurilensis) as possible.…”