Prohibition, Tolerance, Co-option: Cultural Appropriation and Francoism in Catalonia, 1939–75

Abstract

Dictatorships, autocracies and authoritarian political systems must adapt if they wish to survive. The long-lasting dictatorship of Franco's Spain (1939–75) underwent a series of internal adaptations during its almost forty years of existence. The initial project of the Franco regime, which included the destruction of its social and political enemies, lasted until the end of the Second World War. The second phase, marked by a failed autarkic experiment, ended in 1959. The economic change that followed entailed a moderate opening in political terms, whilst maintaining a dictatorial apparatus. This article examines a further feature in the evolution of the Franco regime which initially sought to impose a monolithic national identity (Spanish) by means of the repression of its national minorities (Basque, Catalan, Galician and so on). Due to the absence of a violent political movement as existed in the Basque Country in the form of ETA, Catalonia is a particularly fruitful source to examine the shifts that took place in the Franco regime's policy towards Spain's historic nationalities. This article focuses on the intermediate spaces that appeared between overt opposition on the one hand and active collaboration on the other. This article assesses the evolving policy towards Catalan culture and identity during the dictatorship. I find three main phases in the regime's strategy: repression, followed by comparative tolerance with a final phase of the co-option of Catalan culture, for the purposes of regime legitimation.

Minority Language Recognition and Political Trust in Authoritarian Regimes

“…Then in the 1960s and early 1970s—after several waves of political opposition movements (Balcells 1996) and cultural resistance (Pujol Casademont 2020) – the Franco regime allowed for Catalan cultural organizations and created Chairs of Catalan language and literature at universities (Claesson 2022: 63–64). According to Dowling (2018), this shift in language policy aimed to coopt conservative Catalan-speaking elites (379). Note, however, that these linguistic concessions were not substantive.…”

“…Severe censorship was enforced: Catalan could only be used for unessential products; even cookbooks and children’s books in Catalan were prohibited (Pujol Casademont 2020). Moreover, Catalan cultural organizations risked being shut down at any time (Dowling 2018: 377). These symbolic concessions—set against substantive restrictions—would not affect winning political trust among the Catalans (Dowling 2018).…”

“…Moreover, Catalan cultural organizations risked being shut down at any time (Dowling 2018: 377). These symbolic concessions—set against substantive restrictions—would not affect winning political trust among the Catalans (Dowling 2018).…”