Prosocial Motivation: Inferences From an Opaque Body of Work

Abstract

Because motivations for prosocial actions typically are unclear, sometimes even to actors but especially for observers, it is difficult to study prosocial motivation. This article reviews research that provides evidence regarding children's motives for prosocial behaviors. First, we present a heuristic model to classify motives on the dimension of reflecting altruistic (with the ultimate goal of benefiting another) to egoism (the ultimate goal of benefiting the self) goals; in addition, we briefly discuss classifying motives based on a continuum of morality. Next, we review findings indicating the existence of a number of different motives in our model and briefly discuss developmental issues, when possible. Future directions for the study of prosocial motivation are proposed.

The multifaceted nature of prosocial behavior in children: Links with attachment theory and research

“…Research in adulthood supports the notion that attachment security drives altruistic motivations for acting prosocially, whereas both forms of insecurity promote egoistic motivations (Gillath et al, ). If insecure‐avoidant children wish to avoid emotional connection, perhaps they are less driven by altruistic motives, which are based on empathic concern, and more driven by egoistic motives, such as avoiding punishment or obtaining approval (see Eisenberg et al, ). Among attachment‐anxious adults, egoistic motives may result in ‘compulsive caregiving’ that is intrusive and insensitive to others’ signals (Collins, Ford, Guichard, Kane, & Feeney, ).…”

“…Although such links are amply supported in the adult literature (see Shaver, Mikulincer, Gross, Stern, & Cassidy, ), attachment‐related differences in children's prosocial motivation have been understudied. (See Eisenberg, VanSchyndel, & Spinrad, , for further discussion of children's prosocial motivations. )…”

The Motivational Foundations of Prosocial Behavior From A Developmental Perspective–Evolutionary Roots and Key Psychological Mechanisms: Introduction to the Special Section

“…For examples, moral norms prohibit harming others and encourage the fair and kind treatment of others. Here, we highlight two motivational mechanisms pertaining to social norms that can engender prosocial behavior (see also Eisenberg et al., ).…”

“…For examples, moral norms prohibit harming others and encourage the fair and kind treatment of others. Here, we highlight two motivational mechanisms pertaining to social norms that can engender prosocial behavior (see also Eisenberg et al, 2016). One important motivation is the person's internal desire to act in accordance with social norms and values prescribing behaviors that benefit others (e.g., kindness, fairness).…”

Marmoset prosociality is intentional

“…An individual's prosociality refers to the pulling frequency when a partner is present minus the pulling frequency in the control condition when no partner is present. Note that once a tray is pulled, it stays close to the wire mesh, so the recipient has access to the food bowl Less is known regarding the underlying cognitive mechanisms, in particular whether prosocial behaviors in marmosets are under voluntary intentional control, which is among the critical defining criteria for prosociality in the human literature (Batson et al 2008;Eisenberg et al 2006Eisenberg et al , 2016Eisenberg and Miller 1987;Hawley 2014). For instance, in psychology, a behavior will qualify as prosocial only if it was intended to be beneficial for someone else, even if the goal is not attained.…”