Prospective Dynamic and Probabilistic Material Flow Analysis of Graphene-Based Materials in Europe from 2004 to 2030

Abstract

As industrial demand for graphene-based materials (GBMs) grows, more attention falls on potential environmental risks. The present article describes a first assessment of the environmental releases of GBMs using dynamic probabilistic material flow analysis. The model considered all current or expected uses of GBMs from 2004 to 2030, during which time there have already been significant changes in how the graphene mass produced is distributed to different product categories. Although the volume of GBM production is expected to grow exponentially in the coming years, outflow from the consumption of products containing GBMs shows only a slightly positive trend due to their long lifetimes and the large in-use stock of some applications (e.g., GBM composites used in wind turbine blades). From consumption and end-of-life phase GBM mass flows in 2030, estimates suggest that more than 50% will be incinerated and oxidized in waste plants, 16% will be landfilled, 12% will be exported out of Europe, and 1.4% of the annual production will flow to the environment. Predicted release concentrations for 2030 are 1.4 ng/L in surface water and 20 μg/kg in sludge-treated soil. This study’s results could be used for prospective environmental risk assessments and as input for environmental fate models.

Environmental and Health Impacts of Graphene and Other Two-Dimensional Materials: A Graphene Flagship Perspective

“…This likely precludes long-term accumulation of GBMs in the environment by accidental or direct release of graphene-containing compounds at least at the amounts predicted so far. 171 However, nothing is known about the effects and fate of the degradation products of GBMs in the environment. 133,3 GBMs could also interact with organic matter (e.g., humic substances) to form a so-called eco-corona, which can alter surface reactivity of the materials toward organisms.…”

“…Regarding the more general effects of 2D materials on plants, it should be noted that most of the adverse effects stem from exposure to GBMs at very high concentrations. These are unlikely to occur under real-world conditions when predictive models 171 and recent results on GBM biodegradability are considered (see next section). Therefore, GBMs will be safe for plants at expected emission levels, although more data need to be collected on the process of sexual reproduction and on testing 2D materials alternative to GBMs.…”

“…Thus, evidence to date suggests that GBMs, regardless of their physicochemical properties such as C/O ratio and shape, can slowly be degraded by different microorganisms sharing similar degradative mechanisms/pathways, as well as by detritivores (indirectly via the microbiome). This likely precludes long-term accumulation of GBMs in the environment by accidental or direct release of graphene-containing compounds at least at the amounts predicted so far . However, nothing is known about the effects and fate of the degradation products of GBMs in the environment. , GBMs could also interact with organic matter (e.g., humic substances) to form a so-called eco-corona, which can alter surface reactivity of the materials toward organisms.…”

Recycling of both resin and fibre from wind turbine blade waste via small molecule-assisted dissolution

“…Furthermore, thermal conversion processes produce complex mixtures that necessitate additional high-temperature processes like distillation, hydrodeoxygenation, or hydrocracking before use. Solvolysis, used in this work, recovers clean, intact fibres and reuses resin, and this could close the fibre-reinforced resin composites loop 39 . Due to the high temperature (yet lower than pyrolysis or gasification) and high-pressure conditions, which allow significant volumes of solvents to be collected and reintroduced, this technique is inefficient and energy-intensive.…”

Toxicity and Biotransformation of Carbon-Based Nanomaterials in Marine Microalgae Heterosigma akashiwo

“…This increase in the predicted concentrations was mainly caused by the larger production of CNMs. The predicted environmental concentration of graphene and graphene-family nanomaterials was obtained for the first time by Hong et al (2022) using Dynamic and Probabilistic Material Flow Analysis [30]. According to this model, the predicted concentration of graphene-family nanomaterials in Europe would reach 1.4 ng/L in surface waters by 2030, and the increase therefore will be more than 1000-fold between 2010 and 2030.…”