Prosperity and prestige: Archaeological realities of unfree laborers under Inka imperialism

Abstract

Inka imperial policies reorganized the social and labor landscapes of their subjects on a grand scale and unprecedented degree in the Americas. The two most numerous categories of resettled laborers created by these imperial policies were the mitmaqkuna and yanakuna, who together represented at least a third of the total subject population. The Inkas resettled them, often far from their homelands. They were responsible for the daily provisioning of Inka settlements and keeping the peace among conquered populations. Despite their central role in Inka state consolidation and economy, we know little about these populations outside of ethnohistorical interpretations of their privileged status relative to normal tribute-paying communities. Because ethnohistoric documents were written with Inka and Spanish state interests in mind, archaeological evidence is crucial to evaluate their lived experiences. We compare the ethnohistoric and archaeological evidence of the lives of the mitmaqkuna and yanakuna in two regions: the mitmaqkuna site of Yanawilka in the Vilcas Huamán province and the yanakuna site of Cheqoq in the rural Inka heartland of Cuzco. Archaeological comparisons yield evidence contradicting the long-held assumption that prestige is synonymous with autonomy, power, or even wealth in imperial contexts.

Insights into the genetic histories and lifeways of Machu Picchu’s occupants

“…The Urubamba Valley was a favored location for royal estates and Machu Picchu, Pisac, Ollantaytambo, and over a dozen others have been identified in the drainage (2,10). Some royal estates such as Cheqoq lacked palaces but fulfilled economic roles for the panacas such as maize cultivation, pottery production, and salt mining (5,9). The royal lineages were served by individuals known as yanacona who were ethnically non-Inca and were permanently resettled to attend to the daily needs of the Inca, his mummy, and his guests.…”

“…Royal estates were lands claimed by an Inca emperor for his noble lineage that was maintained in perpetuity for the ostensible purpose of caring for and making offerings to the ruler and, after his death, the ruler’s mummy ( 9 ). Often, these royal estates were established to commemorate conquests, and Machu Picchu may have been built to celebrate Pachacuti’s conquest of the lower Urubamba Valley ( 7 ).…”

“…The royal lineages were served by individuals known as yanacona who were ethnically non-Inca and were permanently resettled to attend to the daily needs of the Inca, his mummy, and his guests. The yanacona were believed to be privileged compared to the general population, and this was expressed in their proximity to royalty and material benefits, such as luxury goods ( 9 , 11 , 12 ). They were taken from conquered lands by the emperor or presented as gifts by other panacas, even after the death of the founder of the royal estate ( 13 , 14 ).…”