Protein leverage and energy intake

Abstract

Increased energy intakes are contributing to overweight and obesity. Growing evidence supports the role of protein appetite in driving excess intake when dietary protein is diluted (the protein leverage hypothesis). Understanding the interactions between dietary macronutrient balance and nutrient-specific appetite systems will be required for designing dietary interventions that work with, rather than against, basic regulatory physiology. Data were collected from 38 published experimental trials measuring ad libitum intake in subjects confined to menus differing in macronutrient composition. Collectively, these trials encompassed considerable variation in percent protein (spanning 8-54% of total energy), carbohydrate (1.6-72%) and fat (11-66%). The data provide an opportunity to describe the individual and interactive effects of dietary protein, carbohydrate and fat on the control of total energy intake. Percent dietary protein was negatively associated with total energy intake (F = 6.9, P < 0.0001) irrespective of whether carbohydrate (F = 0, P = 0.7) or fat (F = 0, P = 0.5) were the diluents of protein. The analysis strongly supports a role for protein leverage in lean, overweight and obese humans. A better appreciation of the targets and regulatory priorities for protein, carbohydrate and fat intake will inform the design of effective and health-promoting weight loss diets, food labelling policies, food production systems and regulatory frameworks.

Childhood obesity: Current and novel approaches

“…While there is some evidence that increased protein content in weaning foods may lead to exaggerated weight gain [79], increased adiposity has not been seen in all studies and may be dependent on the protein source (milk vs. meat) and type of infant feeding (bottle vs. breast) [80]. Conversely, the protein-leverage hypothesis would support the theory that reduced protein content of weaning foods may actually lead to overconsumption of fat and carbohydrate in order to achieve necessary dietary protein levels [81]. Clearly more research in this area is required.…”

Factors influencing individual variability in high fat diet-induced weight gain in out-bred MF1 mice

“…Alternatively, the relationship between weight gain and FI may be explained by individual differences in the requirements of certain micro-or macronutrients, i.e., individuals may vary in their requirements for certain nutrients that are low in the HFD, and compensate by over-consuming the diet. For example, there is evidence that intake of proteins is prioritized over non-protein intake -the protein leverage hypothesis -and this may drive differences in total energy intake according to the balance of macronutrients in the diet [13]. The diets used here differed in the content of carbohydrates and fat, but protein content was the same (20% kcal from proteins in both).…”

Balancing macronutrient intake in cultured Lytechinus variegatus

“…The GF model has provided an effective tool for the study of nutritional responses in a variety of organisms, including humans (Blumfield et al 2012;Gosby et al 2014), non-human mammals (Felton et al, 2009;HewsonHughes et al, 2012HewsonHughes et al, , 2013Mayntz et al, 2009;Solon-Biet et al, 2014;Sørensen et al, 2008), fish (Ruohonen et al, 2007), insects (Chambers et al, 1995;Lee et al, 2002;Simpson, 1993, 2003) and even a cellular slime mold (Dussutour et al, 2009). The results of this…”

“…Under this strategy, dietary protein, which cannot be stored by some organisms, must be tightly regulated to meet needs (Felton et al, 2009;Gosby et al, 2014;Simpson and Raubenheimer, 2005). In contrast, non-protein energy is easily stored and, thus, intake fluctuates with both protein availability and the availability of high energy food (Felton et al, 2009;Gosby et al, 2014;Simpson and Raubenheimer, 2005).…”

“…Both humans (Gosby et al, 2014;Simpson and Raubenheimer, 2005) and non-human primates (Felton et al, 2009) are reported to utilize a protein leverage intake strategy. Under this strategy, dietary protein, which cannot be stored by some organisms, must be tightly regulated to meet needs (Felton et al, 2009;Gosby et al, 2014;Simpson and Raubenheimer, 2005).…”