Protein Sources Alternative to Meat: State of the Art and Involvement of Fermentation

Abstract

Meat represents an important protein source, even in developing countries, but its production is scarcely sustainable, and its excessive consumption poses health issues. An increasing number of Western consumers would replace, at least partially, meat with alternative protein sources. This review aims at: (i) depicting nutritional, functional, sensory traits, and critical issues of single-cell proteins (SCP), filamentous fungi, microalgae, vegetables (alone or mixed with milk), and insects and (ii) displaying how fermentation could improve their quality, to facilitate their use as food items/ingredients/supplements. Production of SCP (yeasts, filamentous fungi, microalgae) does not need arable land and potable water and can run continuously, also using wastes and byproducts. Some filamentous fungi are also consumed as edible mushrooms, and others are involved in the fermentation of traditional vegetable-based foods. Cereals, pseudocereals, and legumes may be combined to offer an almost complete amino acid profile. Fermentation of such vegetables, even in combination with milk-based products (e.g., tarhana), could increase nutrient concentrations, including essential amino acids, and improve sensory traits. Different insects could be used, as such or, to increase their acceptability, as ingredient of foods (e.g., pasta). However, insects as a protein source face with safety concerns, cultural constraints, and a lack of international regulatory framework.

Effect of Maturity Stage on Cereal and Leguminous Seeds’ Metabolome as Analyzed Using Gas Chromatography Mass-Spectrometry (GC-MS) and Chemometric Tools

“…Legumes and cereals are reported as being protein-rich crops [ 48 ], especially wheat [ 49 ]. With regards to amino acids, wheat seeds represented by both cvs., were the richest in free amino acids, accounting for 13–16% of total metabolites, with levels found to be higher in mature specimens of Giza cultivar than immature ones.…”

“Ectomosphere”: Insects and Microorganism Interactions

“…Manipulating and modulating these interactions represents an approach for counteracting plant pests and pathogens, mitigating related damages/symptoms that generate considerable food and economic losses. Moreover, the approach reduces the food and feeds contaminating microorganisms, and the toxicological risk [ 16 ]. Such interactions also provide a basis to develop future research work in a relatively new field due to the vast diversity of insects and microorganisms in a broad range of trophic and ecological niches worldwide.…”

Biogas Production from Microalgal Biomass Produced in the Tertiary Treatment of Urban Wastewater: Assessment of Seasonal Variations

“…They have the advantages of fast and high reproduction rates and sustainable growth, and no competition with food for arable land [1]. Depending on the media composition, the microalgae biomass can be rich in carbohydrates (30-60%), lipids (10-30%) and proteins (20-70%) [2]. Biofuel production by microalgae is still an underdeveloped area all over the world.…”