Psychometric Implications of the Unit‐of‐analysis Problem (With Examples From the Measurement of Organizational Climate)

RETRACTED: Psychological processes linking authentic leadership to follower behaviors

“…This perspective is consistent with authentic leadership theory because the latter highlights the importance of leaders being able to openly share information and build trusting relationships with all followers in their work group, department, or the overall organization (Avolio et al, 2004;Gardner et al, 2005;Ilies et al, 2005). As suggested by Sirotnik (1980), we computed the internal consistency reliability estimate for authentic leadership at the group level. This estimate was 0.88.…”

A Discriminant Validity Study of Aggregate-Level Constructs and Measures of Local Union Formalization, Centralization, and Innovation

“…That is, if a structural variable describes an aggregate-level phenomenon, then representation of the phenomenon using a nonaggregated variable (e.g., individual perceptions) may be inappropriate, and an aggregated variable may be called for. Adapted to studies on legislative structure, if a structural variable reflects a local-level decision process, then individual-level perceptions of the process by officers or by members may introduce ecological bias (Sirotnik, 1980). That is, individual-level perceptions may be idiosyncratic rather than representative of the aggregate-level process.…”

Associations Between Psychosocial Environments in Religious Education Classes and Students' Attitude Toward Christianity

“…Table 1 describes the sample in more detail. Because analyses used the class mean as the unit of analysis, validation data for both the individual and class mean as units of analysis are reported below as recommended by Sirotnik (1980).…”