Quaternary ammonium compounds in soil: implications for antibiotic resistance development

Abstract

Quaternary ammonium compounds (QACs) are surface-active, antimicrobial, high production volume (HPV) chemicals with a broad application in agriculture. This review provides a comprehensive overview of (1) predicted and measured concentrations of QACs in soils including their analysis, (2) sequestration mechanisms in soils based on their physicochemical properties and chemical structure, and (3) implications of concentrations and fate of QACs in soils for the proliferation of antibiotic resistance in the environment. Predicted environmental concentrations (PEC) for QACs that are applied to soils with manure are in the order of 3.5 mg kg -1 . Based on literature data, the median PEC of QAC in sewage sludge amended soils is 25 lg kg -1 . The positively charged QACs are mainly sorbed to clay minerals. We propose that QACs might be sequestered in the interlayer regions of layered silicates in clayrich soils, reducing their acute toxicity, while increasing their persistence. The release of sequestered QACs from soil can still potentially maintain concentration levels that are sufficient to develop antibiotic resistance in the environment.

Photochemical fate of quaternary ammonium compounds in river water

“…Concerns about the detection of QACs in the environment stem from the possibility that prolonged exposure to sub-inhibitory QAC concentrations co-selects for antibiotic resistant bacteria. 3,28,[41][42][43][44][45] The photochemical behavior of QACs in natural environments is still not well understood. BACs are considered stable to direct photodegradation.…”

The Recent Progress in Modification of Polymeric Membranes Using Organic Macromolecules for Water Treatment

“…When bacteria come in contact with QAC, the positive QAC group of quaternary ammonium nitrogen can affect bacterial membrane surface charge balance, which causes cells to inactivate and damaged by penetrating into the cell membranes [123]. Mulder et al (2018) reviewed alkylammonium compounds (QAACs) sequestration mechanisms in soil based on physiochemical properties and the mode of action as antimicrobial agent as schematically displayed in Figure 5 [124]. The positively charged QAACs are sequestrated and enriched into soil, resulting in a reduction in the acute toxicity of free QAC monomers via adsorption on the negatively charged internal and exterior surfaces in claying mineral QAACs.…”

“…Mulder et al (2018) reviewed alkylammonium compounds (QAACs) sequestration mechanisms in soil based on physiochemical properties and the mode of action as antimicrobial agent as schematically displayed inFigure 5[124]. The positively charged QAACs are sequestrated and enriched into soil, resulting in a reduction in the acute toxicity of free QAC monomers via adsorption on the negatively charged internal and exterior surfaces in claying mineral QAACs.…”

“…Schematic of the quaternary ammonium compounds (QACs) mode in the presence of soil smectite and tolerance mechanisms. Cytoplasmic membrane (CM) and outer membrane (OM)[124].…”

Smectite clay minerals reduce the acute toxicity of quaternary alkylammonium compounds towards potentially pathogenic bacterial taxa present in manure and soil

“…Surfactants are an important class of HPVCs and several neutral and anionic surfactants have extensively been investigated in various environmental compartments. However, the number of studies concerned with the transport, fate, and possible adverse effects of cationic surfactants in the environment is small, despite the fact that electrostatic and hydrophobic interactions with negatively charged surfaces in soil and sediments could promote their persistence 2 . Within the group of cationic surfactants, quaternary alkylammonium compounds (QAACs) are a heterogeneous group of organic compounds comprising a quaternary nitrogen atom.…”