Race, Education Attainment, and Happiness in the United States

Abstract

Background and Objectives: As suggests by the Minorities’ Diminished Returns (MDR) theory, education attainment and other socioeconomic status (SES) indicators have a smaller impact on the health and well-being of non-White than White Americans. To test whether MDR also applies to happiness, in the present study, Blacks and Whites were compared in terms of the effect of education attainment on the level of happiness among American adults. Methods: General Social Survey (1972–2016) is a series of national surveys that are performed in the United States. The current analysis included 54,785 adults (46,724 Whites and 8,061 Blacks). The years of schooling (i.e., education attainment) and happiness were the main independent variable and the main dependent variable of interest, respectively. In addition, other parameters such as gender, age, employment status, marital status, and the year of the survey were the covariates and race was the focal effect modifier. Finally, the logistic regression model was used to analyze the data. Results: Based on the results, high education attainment was associated with higher odds of happiness in the pooled sample. Further, a significant interaction was found between race and education attainment on the odds of happiness, showing a larger gain for Whites compared to Blacks. Race-specific models also confirmed this finding (i.e., a larger magnitude of the effect of education for Whites compared to Blacks). Conclusion: Overall, the MDR theory also applies to the effect of education attainment on happiness. Blacks’ disadvantage in comparison to the Whites in gaining happiness from their education may be due to the structural, institutional, and interpersonal racism and discrimination in the US. Therefore, there is a need for economic and public policies that can minimize the Blacks’ diminished returns of education attainment and other SES resources.

<p>Racial Difference in the Relationship Between Health and Happiness in the United States</p>

“…52,53 In two independent studies, education and income generated more happiness and positive emotions for Whites than Blacks. 32,45 Blacks with poor SRH can maintain happiness, while Whites with poor SRH lose more happiness. This study adds to the body of literature supporting the Black-White mental health paradox.…”

“…Another argument suggesting a disjoint between SRH and happiness is that racial differences may exist in the definition and perception of happiness in the context of SRH, and what poor SRH reflects. Many studies have documented Black-White differences in correlates of happiness 32 and SRH. [33][34][35] For Whites, SRH seems to be strongly affected by physical health as it may operate as a sponge that also absorbs social relations and promotes greater mental well-being.…”

Comparison of Maxillofacial Trauma Patterns in the Urban Versus Suburban Environment: A Pilot Study

“…In recent years, the importance of socioeconomic status has been reported across several domains of life, including happiness, education, and health care. 16,17 Traditionally, low socioeconomic status is associated with underserved and urban populations, while suburban areas generally grade higher on this scale. 18 From a facial trauma perspective, the literature has been relatively scarce in describing population classifications and anatomical patterns in this context.…”

Risk Factors for Death Among Hospitalized Patients Aged 21–64 Years Diagnosed with COVID-19—New York City, March 13–April 9, 2020

“…In the U.S., White persons have a lower prevalence of diabetes and chronic kidney disease and lower rates of associated mortality compared with Black and Hispanic persons [ 41 – 43 ]. Racial/ethnic disparities associated with underlying condition prevalence and severe health outcomes can be explained by disparities in access to resources and opportunities, including health care [ 44 , 45 ], housing [ 46 ], food [ 47 ], employment [ 44 , 45 ], and education [ 48 ]. Further studies are needed to assess the associations between racial/ethnic disparities in these resources, SARS-CoV-2 infection, and severe outcomes.…”