Race-Making and Colonial Violence in the U.S. Empire: The Philippine-American War as Race War*

Racism Is Not Enough: Minority Coalition Building in San Francisco, Seattle, and Vancouver

“…Had they been absent, the Chinese would have reconsidered the political utility of forming a coalition with other Asian ethnic groups in these two cities. Racial ideology did affect how the U.S. government justified a war with non-European countries 136 and then its period of military rule in foreign territories, including the Philippines. 137 Nevertheless, it is important to acknowledge that the institutional channels provided by the U.S. military did draw a large number of Filipinos into the United States through employment opportunities and the granting of citizenship.…”

Racial Contestation as Extremism: The Making of Black Radicals as a Threat to the Global/Local Political Order

“…The former provided a "laboratory" in which intelligence practices and institutional blueprints were developed in response to Filipino anticolonial dissidence (McCoy, 2009;Coyne & Hall, 2018). In this "laboratory", security professionals shaped the racial and social control apparatus by introducing technologies, practices, and racial imaginaries (Kramer, 2006;McCoy, 2009;Coyne & Hall, 2018).…”

“…These would only emerge in the context of World War I. Abroad, the main push for the institutional and professional development of the intelligence field was given around that same period, with the Philippine-American War (Kramer, 2006;McCoy, 2009McCoy, , 2016Coyne & Hall, 2018;Schrader, 2019).…”

“…Following the Spanish-American War (1898), the United States invaded and occupied the Philippines after the Battle of Manila Bay (Kramer, 2006). The Philippines was struggling against Spanish colonialism "for at least two decades" by then (Ibid., p.171), but with the Treaty of Paris signed between Spain and the U.S., the archipelago was formally "annexed" by the latter, triggering another conflict in such territory (Ibid.,.…”

“…For Paul A. Kramer (2006;See also McCoy, 2009), the justification for the war relied on racial arguments. The Philippine-American War, for example, was characterized as a "natural extension of Western conquest" that stemmed from the United States' sharing of Anglo-Saxon superiority; then, its imperial enterprise was "the organic expression of the desires, capacities, and destinies of "Anglo-Saxon"…”