Racial Animosity, Adversary Effect, and Hate Crime: Parsing Out Injuries in Intraracial, Interracial, and Race-Based Offenses

Abstract

Although most crime in intraracial, studies suggest that interracial victimization is more injurious. This may be especially true for racially motivated offenses; however, studies of hate crime have not disaggregated which racial dyads are associated with injury, and whether they are more injurious than interracial victimizations generally. Likewise, studies of interracial violence often assume a theoretical framework grounded in racial animosity, but cannot test motivation directly. Using the National Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS), this study compares injuries across intraracial, interracial, and bias-motivated offenses. We find differences across racial dyad and the presence of racial animosity, however, the results are largely driven by the race of the offender. Implications for racial animosity theory, adversary effect, and hate crime literatures are discussed.

Differences by Victim Race and Ethnicity in Race- and Ethnicity-Motivated Violent Bias Crimes: A National Study

“…This can happen in several ways: (a) increasing the size and power of policing (Liska, Lawrence, & Benson, 1981), (b) increasing arrests (Brown & Warner, 1992), and (c) removing minority protections (King, 2007). Powers and Socia (2019) suggest violent victimizations of minority populations, regardless of explicit bias motivation, also fits into racial theory. Although much attention is dedicated toward understanding interracial victimization, intraracial violence is far more common largely due to existing social structures and formal or informal racial segregation (Becker, 2007).…”

“…Powers and Socia (2019) provide an excellent overview of current theories surrounding the intersection of violence and race. Intraracial and interracial violent victimizations are unique entities and the character of each relates to the racial dyad of the offender and victim, the presence of bias, the population distribution, and existing social structures (Powers & Socia, 2019).…”

“…Powers and Socia (2019) provide an excellent overview of current theories surrounding the intersection of violence and race. Intraracial and interracial violent victimizations are unique entities and the character of each relates to the racial dyad of the offender and victim, the presence of bias, the population distribution, and existing social structures (Powers & Socia, 2019). Prior literature suggests the impact of race on injury severity, and frequency of attacks may be influenced by several distinct, yet not mutually exclusive, dynamic interactions (Felson & Pare, 2010; Jacobs & Wood, 1999; Messner, Mchugh, & Felson, 2004).…”

“…Prior literature suggests the impact of race on injury severity, and frequency of attacks may be influenced by several distinct, yet not mutually exclusive, dynamic interactions (Felson & Pare, 2010; Jacobs & Wood, 1999; Messner, Mchugh, & Felson, 2004). The adversary effect is one theory describing these interactions where an offender may anticipate forceful retaliation from the victim and utilize weapons and firearms for protection (Felson & Pare, 2010; Powers & Socia, 2019). In the NCVS, Black victims were more commonly the target of assault with a firearm and less commonly the target of unarmed assault regardless of the race and gender of the offender (Felson & Messner, 1996; Felson & Pare, 2010).…”

“…Even so, victim perceptions and legal definitions are such that bias can be captured in legal frameworks and databases (Ann Arbor MI: Inter-University Consortium for Political and Social Research, 2016; “Hate Crimes, U.S. DOJ,” n.d.; “National Incident-Based Reporting System, Data Collection: Methodology,” n.d.). Powers and Socia used the National Incident-Based Reporting System to compare single offender–single victim interracial bias violence with non-bias interracial and intraracial violence (Powers & Socia, 2019). They found that the risk of minor and major injury depended on the races in the offender–victim dyad and the presence of bias.…”