Racial discrimination and other adverse childhood experiences as risk factors for internalizing mental health concerns among Black youth

Abstract

Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) have been consistently linked to a reduction in healthy psychological adjustment among youth. Emergent evidence suggests that there are culturally specific ACEs, such as racial discrimination, that are particularly harmful to the mental health of Black youth. How-

Racial Stress and Trauma and the Development of Adolescent Depression: A Review of the Role of Vigilance Evoked by Racism-Related Threat

“…18 Greater exposure to racism, from micro- to macrosystems, increases risk for negative mental health outcomes among ALANA youth, including risk for depression and other internalizing symptoms such as anxiety and post-traumatic stress symptoms. 5–7,19,20…”

“…5 This is a critical gap in etiological models of depression in part because encounters with racism can lead to racial stress and trauma (RST), which is a known risk factor for the development of depression. 6–8 Further, this initial increase in depression may serve as a harbinger of enduring distress and impairment. ALANA individuals suffer from more chronic, severe, and debilitating episodes of clinical depression 9 and report disparities in access, uptake, and retention in evidence-based treatments, compared to their White counterparts.…”

“…27,41,42 Although RST increases risk for many forms of psychopathology, [43][44][45] adaptations of general strain theory 46 suggest that RST may specifically heighten risk (or strain) for depression by increasing negative emotionality and lowering selfesteem and self-worth. 47 This theory is supported in part by the large number of studies demonstrating that higher levels of racial discrimination during childhood increases risk for the development of depression during adolescence and young adulthood among ALANA youth 7,8,[24][25][26][27][28] and that selfesteem may mediate the link between racism and depression. [48][49][50][51] Similarly, Brondolo and colleagues updated longstanding cognitive models of depression to reflect how racism may specifically impact vulnerability for depression.…”

The Interaction of Trauma Exposure and DNA Methylation on Blood Pressure Among Black Women in the InterGEN Study

“…15 Further, racism-experienced indirectly through the impacts of income inequality on parenting stress or racialized drug enforcement and mass incarceration on family structures as well as directly through interpersonal racism, over-policing, and neighborhood violence-predisposes Black children to childhood trauma. 16,17 The link between trauma exposure and hypertension is multifactorial and hypothesized to be mediated by psychological, behavioral, and physiological pathways. 15,18 Survivors of childhood trauma are at increased risk of mental health conditions, such as depression, anxiety, and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) 19 ; all of which are associated with elevated risk of hypertension.…”

“…15 Further, racism—experienced indirectly through the impacts of income inequality on parenting stress or racialized drug enforcement and mass incarceration on family structures as well as directly through interpersonal racism, over-policing, and neighborhood violence—predisposes Black children to childhood trauma. 16,17…”