Racial, Religious, and Civic Dimensions of Anti-Muslim Sentiment in America

Abstract

This paper examines anti-Muslim sentiment in America. Existing research has documented rising hostility to Muslims in Western countries, but has been much less clear about what drives such sentiments or exactly what sort of “other” Muslims are understood to be. Our interest is in the cultural construction of Muslims as a problematic or incompatible “other.” We explore the extent, content, and correlates of such views. Building from recent work in critical race theory and the study of cultural boundaries in national belonging, we argue that Muslims are distinct in being culturally excluded on religious, racial, and civic grounds at the same time. Using nationally representative survey data with specially designed measures on views of Muslims and other groups, we show that nearly half of Americans embrace some form of anti-Muslim sentiment, and that such views are systematically correlated with social location and with understandings of the nature of American belonging.

Racialized Religion and Judicial Injustice: How Whiteness and Biblicist Christianity Intersect to Promote a Preference for (Unjust) Punishment

“…Recent work has also documented a growing perception of Muslims as an ethno‐cultural “other” that poses a political and cultural threat to Americans (Dahab and Omori 2019; Edgell et al. 2016; Gerteis, Hartmann, and Edgell 2019). This othering of Muslims has led to an increasing number of poorer Muslim Americans experiencing similar profiling, harsh policing, and general punitiveness in the criminal justice system as have Black and Latino individuals and communities (Norton 2013).…”

Multiculturalism and Antiracism in Sports? U.S. Public Opinions about Native American Team Names and Mascots and the Use of Hijabs in Sports

“…Noninclusive experiences for Muslims (e.g., othering, prejudice, discrimination) seem to be particularly present in sport (Agergaard 2016; Thangaraj 2015; Toffoletti and Palmer 2017). Also, concerns about the safety of allowing various forms of headdress in sports and the appropriateness of changes in the rules of sport to accommodate particular minority group concerns are commonly raised as reasons to oppose hijabs in sports, but these may be partially used as excuses to obscure racist and anti-Muslim sentiments too (Ahmed 2017; Gerteis et al 2019; Prouse 2015). Finally, some individuals consider Muslim women as “powerless” and “political pawns” who are oppressed by more conservative, religious, Muslim men and view the use of hijabs as symptomatic of oppression (Harkness and Islam 2011; Prouse 2015).…”

“…Others perceive the hijab as a symbol of honor and respect for Islamic identities (Harkness and Islam 2011; Toffoletti and Palmer 2017). Furthermore, many U.S. communities have struggled with appreciating and welcoming Muslim individuals following the incidents of 9/11 (Agergaard 2015; Gerteis et al 2019; Harkness and Islam 2011). Sentiments have been inflamed by fear-inducing and derogatory rhetoric toward Muslims, with corresponding immigration and travel restrictions imposed by President Trump (Gerteis et al 2019; Martí 2020; McVeigh and Estep 2019; Samie and Toffoletti 2018).…”

“…Public opinions about the representations and inclusions of Native Americans and Muslims in sport symbolize their cultural citizenship statuses and offer insight into progress and negotiations surrounding multiculturalism and antiracism. Pushes toward multiculturalism and antiracism may disrupt cultural citizenship statuses in uneven ways, as dominant and minority groups often respond to one another’s concerns (Gerteis et al 2019; King 2016; Martí 2020; Samie and Toffoletti 2018).…”

“If You Don’t Speak English, I Can’t Understand You!”: Exposure to Various Foreign Languages as a Threat

“…Research on the constructions of American identity and immigration suggests that "speaking English" is an implicit but critical component of what it means to be American (see Gerteis et al 2020). Given this assumption, the present research asks what happens when individuals are exposed to a foreign language in a U.S. context?…”