Racism-Related Diminished Returns of Socioeconomic Status on Adolescent Brain and Cognitive Development

Abstract

Socioeconomic status (SES) influences health, behaviors, and well-being. Emerging information suggests that SES effects on health may be in part be due to SES effects on brain development. We have conducted a mini review of U.S.-based studies examining SES effects on brain development to synthesize the existing knowledge on what brain structures and functions show large and consistent SES influences. We have reviewed SES effects on performance in various cognitive functions such as learning, memory, and language. Additionally, we have reviewed the emerging literature from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study on the effects of social marginalization in reducing the effects of SES on children and youth brain development. These diminished returns of SES in minoritized youth are not due to genetics; rather, we argue that they stem from systemic and structural racism, social stratification, and marginalization that generate inequalities across the SES spectrum. As a result of these diminished returns, inequalities expand from low-SES to mid- and high SES sections of US society.

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“…This segregation often leads to inadequate infrastructure and lower-quality education systems, hindering the development of skills and opportunities for residents [35][36][37] . Consequently, even when individuals from these communities possess high levels of education and ambition, they still face formidable barriers [38][39][40] . These barriers extend to basic aspects of a healthy lifestyle, such as limited access to nutritious food options and safe spaces for exercise.…”

“…These barriers extend to basic aspects of a healthy lifestyle, such as limited access to nutritious food options and safe spaces for exercise. Despite their personal resources and aspirations, structural racism continues to undermine the health and well-being of these individuals, perpetuating deeply entrenched inequalities [38][39][40] . The link between high education and low BMI is complex and multifaceted 13 .…”

Race and Ethnic Differences in the Protective Effect of Parental Educational Attainment on Subsequent Perceived Tobacco Norms among US Youth

“…While most of this literature is generated on SES effects among adults, there are some studies showing that a sense of mastery, agency, and self-efficacy may be associated with lower health for Black than White individuals [45]. Similarly, positive affect [46,47], happiness [48][49][50], and a sense of health [66][67][68] may generate more life expectancy for Whites than Blacks [45,51]. The positive association between SES and John Henryism is also suggestive of the health risks that may be the price of success for Black individuals [69][70][71][72][73].…”

Parental Education, Ethnicity, and Functional Connectivity between Nucleus Accumbens and Frontoparietal Network

“…Thus, there is an interest to test heterogeneity of the effects of parental conditions and to investigate the multiplicative and nonadditive effects of parental resources and other factors that impact child development [67]. While these differential effects of parental education are shown for structure and function of some brain regions such as amygdala [69], thalamus [70], hippocampus [71], and cerebral cortex [68,72,73], less is known about heterogeneity of the effects of parental education on NAcc.…”