“…Invasive cardiologists, for example, demonstrate poor adherence to radiation protection (10), and not all fellows receive formal radiation education (11). Similarly, nearly half of vascular surgery fellows do not receive formal radiation training (12,13). Th e lack of emphasis on dose reduction among non-radiology-trained operators may account for the more than double radiation doses and fl uoroscopy times found in OR cases, as there was no difference in the quality of the fl uoroscopic equipment or average years of operator experience.…”