Reactive and effortful processes in the organization of temperament

Abstract

Self-organization can be approached in terms of developmental processes occurring within and between component systems of temperament. Within-system organization involves progressive shaping of cortical representations by subcortical motivational systems. As cortical representations develop, they feed back to provide motivational systems with enhanced detection and guidance capabilities. These reciprocal influences may amplify the underlying motivational functions and promote excessive impulsivity or anxiety. However, these processes also depend upon interactions arising between motivational and attentional systems. We discuss these between-system effects by considering the regulation of approach motivation by reactive attentional processes related to fear and by more voluntary processes related to effortful control. It is suggested that anxious and impulsive psychopathology may reflect limitations in these dual means of control, which can take the form of overregulation as well as underregulation.

Relations among mothers' expressivity, children's effortful control, and their problem behaviors: A four-year longitudinal study.

“…EC is based on executive attention capacities and frequently is assessed with measures of attentional skills, persistence, and the ability to voluntarily inhibit or activate behavior (e.g., Kochanska, Murray, & Harlan, 2000;Rothbart, Ahadi, Hersey, & Fisher, 2001;Rothbart & Bates, 1998). The processes that EC includes (attentional and behavior control and persistence) are believed to be fundamental to children's emotion-related regulation and to modulate emotional reactivity and emotional behaviors such as aggression (Derryberry & Rothbart, 1997;Rothbart & Bates, 1998). Although children's EC appears to have a heritable component (Goldsmith et al, 1999;Rothbart & Bates, 1998), there is also evidence of environmental influences on EC.…”

Relation of emotion-related regulation to children's social competence: A longitudinal study.

“…Examples of reactive overcontrol include behavioral inhibition (i.e., the tendency to be overcontrolled, timid, and constrained and lack flexibility) and generally rigid, constrained behavior (Block & Block, 1980;Derryberry & Rothbart, 1997). At the other extreme are impulsive approach behaviors, exemplified when the individual seems to be "pulled" toward situations without adequate reflection (Block & Block, 1980;Eisenberg, 2002).…”

The relations of effortful control and impulsivity to children's sympathy: A longitudinal study

“…Thus, Eisenberg and colleagues (Eisenberg & Morris, 2002;Eisenberg et al, 2007) have built on Rothbart's (e.g., Derryberry & Rothbart, 1997) distinction between effortful and reactive processes in an attempt to differentiate EC from other constructs that may seem effortfully self-regulated but are minimally so. Specifically, there are aspects of control, or the lack thereof, which seem to be involuntary or so automatic that they often are not under voluntary control; we label these reactive control.…”

“…Reactive control processes pertain to relatively involuntary motivational approach and avoidance systems of response reactivity that, at extreme levels, result in impulsive undercontrol and rigid overcontrol. Measures typically tap, but are not confined to: (a) impulsivity: pertains to speed of response initiation and surgent approach behaviors, and (b) overcontrol--rigid, constrained behavior or behavioral inhibition (i.e., slow or inhibited approach in situations involving novelty or uncertainty; note that this is a different construct than inhibitory control) (Derryberry & Rothbart, 1997;Kagan & Fox, 2006). Pickering and Gray (1999) and others (Cacioppo, Gardner, & Berntson, 1999) have argued that motivational systems related to undercontrolled/impulsive and overly inhibited behaviors are associated with subcortical brain systems.…”