Reason to Believe: Representations of Aggression as Phenomenological Read-Out

Abstract

Men tend to view their own aggression as an instrumental act aimed at imposing control, whereas women tend to view theirs as an expressive act resulting from a loss of self-control. These interpretations have been called social representations based on their presumed social origins and mode of transmission. However, if women's self-control is generally higher than men's, they would be expected to behave aggressively only infrequently and at higher levels of provocation. Aggression would be experienced phenomenologically as a loss of self-control. In Study 1, a student sample, men scored higher than women on instrumental beliefs, impulsivity, and risk seeking. As predicted, instrumental beliefs were associated with higher impulsive risk seeking and an expressive representation was positively associated with temper. In Study 2, an offender sample, there were no gender differences in instrumental beliefs, physical aggression, temper, carelessness, and present orientation. Instrumental beliefs were again associated with impulsive risk seeking and, to a lesser extent, temper. Expressive beliefs were again associated with temper and, to a lesser extent, present orientation. Physical aggression was associated with holding instrumental beliefs, impulsive risk seeking, and temper. The model is broadly supported and directions for future work are suggested.

Intent to harm or injure? Gender and the expression of anger

“…This was puzzling because it seemed reasonable to suppose that holding a self-condem- natory view of aggression should be strongly and inversely associated with aggressive behaviour. However, recent studies have shown that, in both sexes, expressive individuals not only view aggression as an index of poor self-control but actually possess better self-control than their more instrumental peers [Alexander et al, 2004;Driscoll et al, 2006]. This raises the question of whether the anger of expressive-minded individuals is simply ''squashed'' or whether it is expressed in other forms that are not detected by standard aggression inventories.…”

Intimate partner violence: Are the risk factors similar for men and women, and similar to other types of offending?

“…They are, therefore, less able to control or restrain their emotions or behavior, and are more likely to express their anger in the form of overt aggression than are those with high self-control. They will, therefore, tend to act impulsively in response to provocation (Alexander, Allen, Brooks, Cole, & Campbell, 2004;Driscoll et al, 2006).…”

The embodied self: Making a fist enhances men’s power-related self-conceptions

“…At least in Western cultures, men tend to accept and use bodily force more easily than women (Felson, 2002). Consequently, men are more likely to associate their own use of physical force with gaining influence, whereas women are less likely to do so (Alexander, Allen, Brooks, Cole, & Campbell, 2004;Driscoll, Zinkivskay A., Evans, & Campbell, 2006;Eagly & Steffen, 1986;Campbell, 1999). This makes men more likely to experience making a fist in situations in which they want to achieve or actually achieve power.…”