Reassertion and giving up: The interactive role of self-directed attention and outcome expectancy.

Carver, Charles S.; Blaney, Paul H.; Scheier, Michael F.

doi:10.1037/0022-3514.37.10.1859

Cited by 199 publications

(178 citation statements)

References 34 publications

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“…We found evidence to suggest that coping is highly related to optimism and pessimism. Our findings, with an athletic population, support previous research that less optimistic individuals are more likely to withdraw or disengage (e.g., Carver et al, 1979;Solberg Nes, Segerstrom, and Sephton, 2005) and that more optimistic individuals use more approach coping strategies, but less avoidance strategies (Solberg Nes & Segerstrom, 2006). Seligman (1998) also suggested that optimism results in higher levels of achievement.…”

Section: Discussionsupporting

confidence: 80%

“…Researchers became interested in studying optimism, because more optimistic individuals exhibit increased effort to achieve goals. Alternatively, less optimistic individuals are more likely to withdraw or disengage attempts at achieving a goal (e.g., Carver, Blaney, & Scheier, 1979;Gaudreau & Blondin, 2004;Solberg Nes, Segerstrom, & Sephton, 2005). In addition, optimism seems to be a predictor of sport performance.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

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Mental toughness, optimism, pessimism, and coping among athletes

Nicholls

Polman

Levy

et al. 2008

Personality and Individual Differences

257

179

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The concept of mental toughness is widely used, but empirical evidence is required to fully understand this construct and its related variables. The purpose of this paper was to explore the relationship between: (a) mental toughness and coping, (b) mental toughness and optimism, and (c) coping and optimism. Participants were 677 athletes (male 454; female 223) aged between 15 and 58 years (M age = 22.66 years, SD = 7.20). Mental toughness correlated significantly with 8 of the 10 coping subscales and optimism. In particular, higher levels of mental toughness were associated with more problem or approach coping strategies (mental imagery, effort expenditure, thought control, and logical analysis) but less use of avoidance coping strategies (distancing, mental distraction, and resignation). Eight coping subscales were significantly correlated with optimism and pessimism. In conclusion, the relationships observed in this study emphasize the need for the inclusion of coping and optimism training in mental toughness interventions.

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Section: Discussionsupporting

confidence: 80%

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Mental toughness, optimism, pessimism, and coping among athletes

Nicholls

Polman

Levy

et al. 2008

Personality and Individual Differences

257

179

View full text Add to dashboard Cite

show abstract

“…Research has shown that self-focus inhibits performance when outcome expectancies are low but facilitates performance when outcome expectancies are high (e.g., Brockner, 1979;Carver et al, 1979;Scheier & Carver, 1982). Therefore, if depressed people tend to self-focus after failures, when future outcome expectancies are likely to be low, their motivation and subsequent performance levels should be especially low.…”

Section: Consequences Of Self-focused Attent Ionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Self-regulatory perseveration and the depressive self-focusing style: A self-awareness theory of reactive depression.

Pyszczynski¹,

Greenberg²

1987

Psychological Bulletin

742

554

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In this article, we apply theory and research on self-focused attention and self-regulatory processes to the problem of depression and use this framework to integrate the roles played by a variety of psychological processes emphasized by other theories of the development and maintenance of depression. We propose that depression occurs after the loss of an important source of self-worth when an individual becomes stuck in a self-regulatory cycle in which no responses to reduce the discrepancy between actual and desired states are available. Consequently, the individual falls into a pattern of virtually constant self-focus, resulting in intensified negative affect, self-derogation, further negative outcomes, and a depressive self-focusing style in which he or she self-focuses a great deal after negative outcomes but very little after positive outcomes. Eventually, these factors lead to a negative self-image, which may take on value by providing an explanation for the individual's plight and by helping the individual avoid further disappointments. The depressive self-focusing style then maintains and exacerbates the depressive disorder. We review findings from laboratory studies of mild to moderately depressed people, correlational studies of more severely depressed people, and clinical observations with respect to consistency with the theory.

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“…Moreover, depressed psychiatric patients report more negative affect when made selfaware by the presence of a mirror than depressed patients not made self-aware (Gibbons et al, 1985). Self-focus can heighten depressed mood by increasing the probability that an individual will make internal attributions for negative events (Fenigstein & Levine, 1984), by increasing negative expectancies about the future (Carver, Blaney, & Scheier, 1979;Pyszczynski, Holt, & Greenberg, 1987), and by interfering with performance on tasks (Fenigstein, 1979). Because the response styles theory holds that rumination consists of focus on one's symptoms of depression and repetitive thoughts about the possible causes and consequences of these symptoms, the results of these studies on self-awareness and depression are in line with the hypothesis that people who engage in rumination when depressed will remain depressed longer thanpeople who do not.…”

Section: Self-focus and Depressionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Effects of responses to depression on the remediation of depressive affect.

Morrow¹,

Nolen–Hoeksema²

1990

Journal of Personality and Social Psychology

493

367

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The effects of different types of responses to a depressed mood on the duration and severity of the mood were examined. On the basis of Nolen-Hoeksema's (1987) response styles theory of depression, it was hypothesized that distracting, active responses would be more effective in alleviating a depressed mood than would ruminative, passive responses. A depressed mood was induced in 35 male and 34 female Ss, and subjects were randomly assigned to engage in 1 of 4 types of responses: an active task that distracted them from their mood; a passive, distracting task; an active task designed to lead to ruminations about their mood; or a passive, ruminative task. As predicted, the greatest remediation of depressed mood was found in Ss in the distracting-active response condition, followed in order by the distracting-passive, ruminative-active, and ruminative-passive response conditions. Degree of rumination had a greater impact on remediation of depressive affect than level of activity, with greater rumination leading to lesser remediation of depressive affect. In addition, the effects of the response tasks were limited to depressed mood. The implications of these results for interventions with depressed persons are discussed.Most individuals become mildly to moderately depressed at least occasionally. Such episodes can be caused by a large variety of psychosocial and biological factors (Beckham & Leber, 1985). For most people, the symptoms of depression never become very severe and pass in a few hours or days. For some individuals, however, these mild to moderate depressive episodes become progressively more severe and last several days, weeks, or months. What are the causes of the individual differences in the duration and severity of depressive episodes?In the study described here, we tested the hypothesis that the ways individuals respond to their symptoms of depression influence the severity and duration of depressed mood. This hypothesis is based on Nolen-Hoeksema's (1987) response styles theory of depression. According to this theory, ruminative responses to a depressed mood lead to longer lasting and more severe episodes of depression, whereas distracting responses shorten depressive episodes. Below we describe this theory in more detail and review previous studies relevant to the theory. Ruminative and Distracting Responses to DepressionThe response styles theory of depression (Nolen-Hoeksema, 1987) proposes that individuals who engage in ruminative responses to depressed mood will experience amplification and prolongation of the mood, whereas individuals who engage in distracting responses to their depressed mood will experience relief from that mood. Ruminative responses are cognitionsWe thank Miriam Harris and Karen Schlaepfer for their assistance in conducting this experiment. We also thank Barbara L. Fredrickson and Ghassan Ghandour for their comments on earlier drafts.

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Reassertion and giving up: The interactive role of self-directed attention and outcome expectancy.

Cited by 199 publications

References 34 publications

Mental toughness, optimism, pessimism, and coping among athletes

Mental toughness, optimism, pessimism, and coping among athletes

Self-regulatory perseveration and the depressive self-focusing style: A self-awareness theory of reactive depression.

Effects of responses to depression on the remediation of depressive affect.

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