Recall latencies, confidence, and output positions of true and false memories: Implications for recall and metamemory theories

Abstract

Recall latency, recall accuracy rate, and recall confidence were examined in free recall as a function of recall output serial position using a modified Deese-Roediger-McDermott paradigm to test a strength-based theory against the dual-retrieval process theory of recall output sequence. The strength theory predicts the item output sequence to be in the descending order of memory strength. The dual-retrieval process theory postulates two phases in a free recall, a first direct access phase in which items are output verbatim in the weakest-to-strongest order (cognitive triage) and a second reconstructive phase in which reconstructed items are output in the strongestto-weakest order. In three experiments, all three indicators of memory strength (latency, accuracy, and confidence) consistently showed a descending-strength order of recall both for true and false memories. Additionally, false memory was found to be output in two phases and subjects' confidence judgment of their own memory to be unaccountable by retrieval fluency (recall latency). Keywords recall latencies; recall output position; false memory; metamemoryThe main purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between memory strength of remembered items and their sequential output order in free recall. Research results have been inconsistent regarding the relationship between these two variables. Two theoretical perspectives make different predictions. The first view will be termed memory strength theories (Anderson, 1976(Anderson, , 2005Dosher, 1984;Gillund & Shiffrin, 1984;Norman, 2002; Wixted, Ghadisha, and Vera, 1997). These theories hold that the output sequence of items in a free recall follows the decreasing order of memory strength or activation of the items, i.e., recall output order is from the strongest to the weakest item. Also, according to these theories, the retrieval time for stronger memory is shorter than for weaker memory. The other perspective will be termed the dual-retrieval processes theory (

On the possibility of using reaction time to study false memories.

“…This result was further extended by Jou (2008), who investigated differences in latencies between false and true memories in a free recall task. The results showed a higher latency for false memories than for true memories, leading to the conclusion that it is a weaker form of memory despite its vivid characteristics.…”

Individual differences in false recall: A latent variable analysis

“…Like other ELIs, research suggests that these errors tend to occur late in the recall period (Roediger & McDermott, 1995), and arise due to both semantic and phonological associations . Furthermore, these ELIs tend to be associated with lower confidence ratings than words actually presented on the lists (Jou, 2008).…”

Invariance of cognitive triage in the development of recall in adulthood

“…Brainerd et al (2008) argued that their findings indicate that there are discrete representations for true and false memory at recall and provides support the output patterns found in the Payne et al (1996) and Barnhardt et al (2006) studies. Although output positions for true and false memories may conform to patterns derived from cognitive triage, this degree of conformity may depend on exactly how memory strength is measured (e.g., recall accuracy, number of study trials, amount of study time) (also see Jou, 2008;Rohrer & Wixted, 1994;Wixted, Ghadisha, & Vera, 1997).…”