Recent Advances in Astaxanthin Micro/Nanoencapsulation to Improve Its Stability and Functionality as a Food Ingredient

Abstract

Astaxanthin is a carotenoid produced by different organisms and microorganisms such as microalgae, bacteria, yeasts, protists, and plants, and it is also accumulated in aquatic animals such as fish and crustaceans. Astaxanthin and astaxanthin-containing lipid extracts obtained from these sources present an intense red color and a remarkable antioxidant activity, providing great potential to be employed as food ingredients with both technological and bioactive functions. However, their use is hindered by: their instability in the presence of high temperatures, acidic pH, oxygen or light; their low water solubility, bioaccessibility and bioavailability; their intense odor/flavor. The present paper reviews recent advances in the micro/nanoencapsulation of astaxanthin and astaxanthin-containing lipid extracts, developed to improve their stability, bioactivity and technological functionality for use as food ingredients. The use of diverse micro/nanoencapsulation techniques using wall materials of a different nature to improve water solubility and dispersibility in foods, masking undesirable odor and flavor, is firstly discussed, followed by a discussion of the importance of the encapsulation to retard astaxanthin release, protecting it from degradation in the gastrointestinal tract. The nanoencapsulation of astaxanthin to improve its bioaccessibility, bioavailability and bioactivity is further reviewed. Finally, the main limitations and future trends on the topic are discussed.

Gum Arabic/Gelatin and Water-Soluble Soy Polysaccharides/Gelatin Blend Films as Carriers of Astaxanthin—A Comparative Study of the Kinetics of Release and Antioxidant Properties

“…Generally, the release of an active substance from a polymer matrix can be categorized in three main processes: (i) diffusion from a non-degraded polymer (diffusion-controlled system); (ii) enhanced drug diffusion due to polymer swelling (swelling-controlled system); (iii) release via polymer degradation and erosion (erosion-controlled system) [ 38 ]. Since the carriers used in this study were fully water soluble (at 30 °C), it can be concluded that the AST release was mainly controlled by an erosion-driven process.…”

Valorization of Fermented Shrimp Waste with Supercritical CO2 Conditions: Extraction of Astaxanthin and Effect of Simulated Gastrointestinal Digestion on Its Antioxidant Capacity

“…Contrary to our results, astaxanthin in raw salmon flesh and supplements is relatively stable during in vitro digestion. Nonetheless, the bioaccessibility of carotenoids is also associated with their origin and chemical characteristics [ 37 ]. Many studies have focused on the increased stability of astaxanthin using different matrix formulations to protect the molecule in the gastrointestinal environment [ 37 , 38 , 39 ].…”

“…Nonetheless, the bioaccessibility of carotenoids is also associated with their origin and chemical characteristics [ 37 ]. Many studies have focused on the increased stability of astaxanthin using different matrix formulations to protect the molecule in the gastrointestinal environment [ 37 , 38 , 39 ]. During lactic acid fermentation of shrimp waste, astaxanthin from fermented liquor is found in the free or esterified form [ 15 , 16 , 40 ].…”

“…Therefore, the increase in the antioxidant capacity during gastrointestinal digestion of the optimized supercritical CO 2 extract could be due to the available carotenoids released with good antioxidant activity [ 2 ]. Moreover, encapsulation strategies using different encapsulation matrixes have been developed to increase the bioaccessibility and bioavailability of astaxanthin of marine origin [ 17 , 37 , 38 , 39 ]. Therefore, the low bioaccessibility of astaxanthin in our study supports the need to continue these encapsulation studies to increase the bioaccessibility of this antioxidant carotenoid of interest in the pharmaceutical, food, and food supplement industries.…”

Olfactory and gustatory disorders caused by COVID-19: How to regain the pleasure of eating?

“…Some foods or their volatile compounds have already been encapsulated to mask undesirable flavors and odors: (i) pea protein ( Cui, Kimmel, Zhou, Rao, & Chen, 2020 ); (ii) oils in general (fish, shrimp, cod liver, garlic, green coffee, etc.) ( Gulzar & Benjakul, 2020 ; Morsy & Elsabagh, 2021 ; Oliveira et al, 2020 ; Pourashouri, Shabanpour, Heydari, & Raeisi, 2021 ; Raeisi, Ojagh, Pourashouri, Salaün, & Quek, 2021 ; Serfert, Drusch, & Schwarz, 2010 ); (iii) astaxanthin ( Martínez-Álvarez, Calvo, & Gómez-Estaca, 2020 ); (iv) catechin ( Astray, Mejuto, & Simal-Gandara, 2020 ); (v) bitter acids (caffeine, quinine, and chlorogenic) ( Astray et al, 2020 ); (vi) bioactive peptide powder ( Wang & Selomulya, 2020 ), among others. Currently, there are no products developed by the industry or described in the literature concerning flavor and aroma encapsulation for consumers with dysosmia and dysgeusia.…”