Recent Advances in Early Diagnosis of Viruses Associated with Gastroenteritis by Biosensors

Abstract

Gastroenteritis, as one of the main worldwide health challenges, especially in children, leads to 3–6 million deaths annually and causes nearly 20% of the total deaths of children aged ˂5 years, of which ~1.5 million gastroenteritis deaths occur in developing nations. Viruses are the main causative agent (~70%) of gastroenteritis episodes and their specific and early diagnosis via laboratory assays is very helpful for having successful antiviral therapy and reduction in infection burden. Regarding this importance, the present literature is the first review of updated improvements in the employing of different types of biosensors such as electrochemical, optical, and piezoelectric for sensitive, simple, cheap, rapid, and specific diagnosis of human gastroenteritis viruses. The Introduction section is a general discussion about the importance of viral gastroenteritis, types of viruses that cause gastroenteritis, and reasons for the combination of conventional diagnostic tests with biosensors for fast detection of viruses associated with gastroenteritis. Following the current laboratory detection tests for human gastroenteritis viruses and their limitations (with subsections: Electron Microscope (EM), Cell Culture, Immunoassay, and Molecular Techniques), structural features and significant aspects of various biosensing methods are discussed in the Biosensor section. In the next sections, basic information on viruses causing gastroenteritis and recent developments for fabrication and testing of different biosensors for each virus detection are covered, and the prospect of future developments in designing different biosensing platforms for gastroenteritis virus detection is discussed in the Conclusion and Future Directions section as well.

A Review on Human Metapneumovirus and Human Bocavirus Associated with Acute Respiratory Tract Infections

“…Tubes are used to collect sputum, endotracheal aspirates, and bronchioalveolar lavages. Each method's sensitivity is influenced by various elements, including the type of sample, the moment the sample was taken, the onset of the patient's symptoms, their age, the antigen target, and the characteristics of the virus [26,27]. Immunocompromised individuals shed low titers of the virus over a long period, making nonmolecular methods of detection challenging.…”

Rotavirus infection in children: clinical and etiological structure and analysis of vaccine prophylaxis

“…Установленные нами закономерности позволяют полагать, что некоторые проблемы, связанные с вакцинопрофилактикой РВИ и улучшением эффекта существующих вакцин, могут быть решены с помощью мультиплексных панелей патогенов для диагностики острого вирусного гастроэнтерита, биосенсоров и новых вакцин, для профилактики РВИ [32][33][34][35].…”

Prevalence, molecular characterization, and clinical features of human bocavirus in children under 5 years of age with acute gastroenteritis admitted to a specialized children's hospital in Iran: A cross‐sectional study

“…Diarrhea is the most common symptom in most gastroenteritis cases, and it is the second most common cause of death in infants and children under the age of five (about 800,000 fatalities each year). 2 Among the various etiological agents of acute gastroenteritis, viruses are considered the most common. Around 75%-90% of all acute gastroenteritis cases in children are caused by viruses worldwide.…”

“…It is estimated that 3–6 million people die each year from gastroenteritis worldwide, with children under the age of five accounting for approximately 20% of all child deaths. Diarrhea is the most common symptom in most gastroenteritis cases, and it is the second most common cause of death in infants and children under the age of five (about 800,000 fatalities each year) 2 …”