Recent advances in electrochemical sensors and biosensors for monitoring drugs and metabolites in pharmaceutical and biological samples

Abstract

Various applications of electrochemical sensors and biosensors have been reported in many fields. These include pharmaceuticals, drug detection, cancer detection, and analysis of toxic elements in tap water. Electrochemical sensors are characterised by their low cost, ease of manufacture, rapid analysis, small size and ability to detect multiple elements simultaneously. They also allow the reaction mechanisms of analytes, such as drugs, to be taken into account, giving a first indication of their fate in the body or their pharmaceutical preparation. Several materials are used in the construction of sensors, such as graphene, fullerene, carbon nanotubes, carbon graphite, glassy carbon, carbon clay, graphene oxide, reduced graphene oxide, and metals. This review covers the most recent progress in electrochemical sensors used to analyze drugs and metabolites in pharmaceutical and biological samples. We have highlighted carbon paste electrodes (CPE), glassy carbon electrodes (GCE), screen-printed carbon electrodes (SPCE) and reduced graphene oxide electrodes (rGOE). The sensitivity and analysis speed of electrochemical sensors can be improved by modifying them with conductive materials. Different materials used for modification have been reported and demonstrated, such as molecularly imprinted polymers, multiwalled carbon nanotubes, fullerene (C60), iron(III) nanoparticles (Fe3O4NP), and CuO micro-fragments (CuO MF). Manufacturing strategies and the detection limit of each sensor have been reported.

Zinc Nanocomposite Supported Chitosan for Nitrite Sensing and Hydrogen Evolution Applications

“…Although most of these techniques perform well in lab settings, electrochemical methods are very sensitive and selective for detecting drugs and contaminated water [ 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 ]. Various benefits include affordability, reaction speed, simplicity, and reproducibility [ 15 , 16 ].…”

Review—Aptamers and Biomimetic Receptors in Biosensing: Innovations and Applications

“…These sensors are widely used in fields like food safety (finding toxins or allergies), 75 environmental monitoring (finding pollutants or contaminants), 76 medical diagnostics (finding biomarkers or infections), 77 and drug development (finding pharmaceutical substances). 78 They are useful instruments for research and realworld applications due to their accuracy and adaptability, which propels developments in analytical chemistry and biosensing technologies. 12 A label-free electrochemical aptasensor was devised by Venegas et al to facilitate the specific identification of carbendazim (CBZ).…”

Detection of Cannabinoids in Oral Fluid Specimens as the Preferred Biological Matrix for a Point-of-Care Biosensor Diagnostic Device

“…They all hold promise for POC cannabinoid detection, but they are still under development and face challenges like selectivity, sensitivity, and integration into user-friendly devices. Aptamers and nanoparticle-based sensors show potential but require further research and optimization for oral fluid applications [ 60 , 61 ]. Conductometric and impedimetric sensors are simpler but face limitations in specificity and require miniaturization for POC suitability [ 62 , 63 ].…”