Recent Advances in Mycotoxin Analysis and Detection of Mycotoxigenic Fungi in Grapes and Derived Products

Abstract

Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites of filamentous fungi that can cause toxic effects in human and animal health. Most of the filamentous fungi that produce these mycotoxins belong to four genera, namely, Aspergillus, Penicillium, Fusarium, and Alternaria. Mycotoxigenic fungi, along with mycotoxins, create a constant and serious economic threat for agriculture in many terms, counting product losses due to crop contamination and food spoilage, as well malnutrition when considering nutritional quality degradation. Given the importance of robust and precise diagnostics of mycotoxins and the related producing fungi in the grape food chain, one of the most important agricultural sectors worldwide, the present review initially delivers a comprehensive presentation of mycotoxin reports on grape and derived products, including a wide range of commodities such as fresh grapes, raisins, wine, juices, and other processed products. Next, based on worldwide regulations’ requirements for mycotoxins, and referring to the relative literature, this work presents methodological approaches for mycotoxin determination, and stresses major methods for the detection of fungal species responsible for mycotoxin production. The principle of function and basic technical background on the available analytical and molecular biology techniques developed—including chromatography, mass spectrometry, immunochemical-based assays, biosensors, and molecular assays—is briefly given, and references for their application to grape and derived product testing are highlighted.

Fast and Accurate Determination of Minute Ochratoxin A Levels in Cereal Flours and Wine with the Label-Free White Light Reflectance Spectroscopy Biosensing Platform

“…The specificity of the in-house developed rabbit antibody against other mycotoxins that could be present in food/beverages, e.g., wine [ 7 ], was determined though cross-reactivity studies. The mycotoxins tested were the ochratoxin B (OTB) and ochratoxin C (OTC), which along with OTA form the ochratoxin group, as well as deoxynivalenol (DON), fumonisin B1 (FB1) and aflatoxin B1 (AFB1)—each of the latter three toxins is the main representative of three mycotoxin groups (trichothecenes, fumonisins and aflatoxins, respectively) usually detected in cereal and grape products [ 27 ]. For this purpose, solutions of each potential cross-reactant mycotoxin with concentrations ranging from 0.1 to 20,000 ng/mL were assayed using a chip coated with OTA-OVA conjugate after 30 min pre-incubation with the anti-OTA antibody.…”

Ozone in wineries and wine processing: A review of the benefits, application, and perspectives

“…Depending on the climate, many fungi can grow in the vineyard and infect grapes. Filamentous fungi such as Aspergillus, Alternaria, Botrytis, Cladosporium, Epicoccum, Pénicillium , and Rhizopus are the most frequent fungi found on grapes when the moisture content is high and the temperature is between 20°C and 30°C (Kizis et al., 2021; Welke, 2019). The spoiling agents, including Aspergillus, Botrytis, Pénicillium , and Rhizopus , become more prevalent and multiply throughout maturation (Kizis et al., 2021; Welke, 2019).…”

“…Filamentous fungi such as Aspergillus, Alternaria, Botrytis, Cladosporium, Epicoccum, Pénicillium , and Rhizopus are the most frequent fungi found on grapes when the moisture content is high and the temperature is between 20°C and 30°C (Kizis et al., 2021; Welke, 2019). The spoiling agents, including Aspergillus, Botrytis, Pénicillium , and Rhizopus , become more prevalent and multiply throughout maturation (Kizis et al., 2021; Welke, 2019). The presence of these filamentous fungi in grapes leads to the production of toxic secondary metabolites known as mycotoxins, including alternariol, alternariol monomethyl ether, aflatoxin B1, citrinin, fumonisin B2, ochratoxin A (OTA), patulin, and tenuazonic acid (Welke, 2019).…”

“…Wine is one of the many beverage groups at high risk of contamination by mycotoxins. The origin of mycotoxin contamination in wine is from grapes, so the hygienic condition of grapes is a critical element in avoiding the presence of mycotoxins in the final product (Kizis et al., 2021). It is widely established that the presence of Ochratoxin A (OTA) in wine is associated with fungal infection in the vineyards; moreover, the presence of Aspergillus section Nigri varieties is present on the surface of fresh berries and is associated with OTA contamination of grapes.…”

Mycotoxins—Prevention, Detection, Impact on Animal Health

“…Maximum permissible levels of mycotoxins are regulated worldwide by relevant legal acts [70], and the monitoring of their presence in certain goods is obligatory to ensure food safety and to protect the health of potential consumers [70,71]. Analytical methods for the detection of secondary metabolites of mold fungi include immunochemical techniques [72], which are mainly used for routine inspections and rapid on-site detection, and chromatographybased techniques that provide sensitive, accurate, and selective determinations of known species of mycotoxins [70].…”