Reducing Rural Households' Annual Income Fluctuations Due to Rainfall Variation Through Diversification of Wildlife Use: Portfolio Theory in a Case Study of South Eastern Zimbabwe

Abstract

Annual rural incomes in Southern Africa show large rainfall-induced fluctuations. Variable rainfall has serious implications for agro-pastoral activities (crop cultivation and livestock keeping), whereas wildlife and tourism are less affected. The aim of this paper is to investigate the role of wildlife income in reducing rainfall-induced fluctuations in households' annual incomes. We analyse costs and benefits from agro-pastoral systems in southeastern Zimbabwe by means of a two-tier longitudinal survey and wildlife benefits through analysis of wildlife revenues. We use the portfolio theory framework to investigate whether wildlife conservation has the potential for farmers to reduce risk associated with agricultural production. Results show that even though wildlife income is small, it tends to be less volatile than income from the agro-pastoral system. Furthermore, the addition of wildlife as an asset to the rural farmers' portfolio of assets showed that wildlife can be used as a hedge asset to offset risk from agricultural production without compromising on return. The potential of diversification using wildlife is, however, limited since agriculture and wildlife assets are positively correlated. We conclude that revenues from wildlife have some potential to reduce annual household income fluctuations, but only to a limited extent. We argue that if wildlife is organised on a more commercial basis, a more substantial role can be played by wildlife income in reducing variations in rural households' incomes.

A bioeconomic analysis of community wildlife conservation in Zimbabwe

“…The fundamental idea behind such initiatives is that bene…ts from wildlife conservation should strengthen the incentives of local people in such a way that they treat wildlife as a valuable asset (Songorwa, 1999;Songorwa, 2000;and Balint and Mashinya, 2006). Viewed as an asset, wildlife has the potential to provide local communities with a hedge against agricultural risk associated with extreme weather conditions, by creating employment and generating revenues (Muchapondwa and Sterner, 2012;and Poshiwa et al, 2013).…”

Trophy Hunting and Possible Source-Sink Dynamics in Protected Areas: Insights from Trophy Size and Offtake Patterns in Southeast Zimbabwe

“…MSA has an area of 157 km 2 and was designated as a safari area in 1980 [24,25], which falls under protected area category VI [26]. MSA is a Zimbabwe Parks and Wildlife Management Authority (ZPWMA) property International Journal of Zoology 3 [27] and has an average monthly minimum temperature range from 9 ∘ C in June to 24 ∘ C in January. In summer, temperatures can be as high as 39 ∘ C [28].…”

Wetlands in drylands: Use and conflict dynamics at the human–wildlife interface in Mbire District, Zimbabwe

“…CAMPFIRE thus adds to the portfolio of activities that reduce the vulnerability of agropastoralists to rainfall variability (Cumming, 2005;Poshiwa et al, 2013) while part of the revenue is invested in conservation, for instance, through anti-poaching activities (Taylor, 2009).…”

“…Households receive meat from trophy animals while the community dividend is used for local infrastructural development, cash payouts and purchase of drought relief in return for sparing land for wildlife conservation and to stop illegal hunting (Frost & Bond, 2008; Murombedzi, 1997). CAMPFIRE thus adds to the portfolio of activities that reduce the vulnerability of agropastoralists to rainfall variability (Cumming, 2005; Poshiwa et al, 2013) while part of the revenue is invested in conservation, for instance, through anti‐poaching activities (Taylor, 2009).…”