Reducing the acrylamide‐forming potential of wheat

Abstract

Acrylamide is a Class 2a carcinogen that was discovered in a variety of popular foods, including baked cereal products, in 2002. The predominant route for its formation is from free asparagine and reducing sugars in the Maillard reaction, with free asparagine concentration being the main determinant of acrylamide‐forming potential in cereal products. The European Commission set “indicative” levels for acrylamide in food in 2011 and 2013, and is currently reviewing its options for further measures. Agronomic and genetic approaches to reducing the acrylamide‐forming potential of wheat include the evaluation of existing varieties for low asparagine accumulation in the grain, ensuring adequate sulfur fertilization in relation to nitrogen supply, developing an understanding of the genetic control of asparagine metabolism, and identifying quantitative trait loci or molecular markers for low asparagine accumulation in the grain. Asparagine concentration in grain is affected by environmental factors (E), genetic factors (G), and interactions between the two (G × E). This paper reviews the continuing efforts being made to reduce the acrylamide‐forming potential of wheat, and to increase awareness of the issue among wheat breeders, farmers, and the food industry.

Effect of added sugars and amino acids on acrylamide formation in white pan bread

“…Acrylamide content ranged from 42.6 to 347.2 μg/kg in the bread crust (Figure a). That agrees with previous studies (Curtis & Halford, ; Keramat et al, ; Przygodzka et al, ) that reported that the addition of asparagine (0.1 or 0.3 g/100 g flour) in bread products significantly increased acrylamide content in bread crust, as asparagine is a primary precursor for acrylamide formation. We also found that adding 0.1 g/100 g flour lysine or alanine increased bread acrylamide content, and adding glycine, proline, or a lower amount (0.1 g/100 g flour) of threonine decreased bread acrylamide content.…”

“…Acrylamide content ranged from 42.6 to 347.2 μg/kg in the bread crust (Figure 3a). That agrees with previous studies (Curtis & Halford, 2016;Keramat et al, 2011;Przygodzka et al, 2015) that reported that the addition of asparagine (0.1 or 0.3 g/100 g flour) in bread products significantly increased acrylamide content in bread crust, as asparagine is a primary precursor for acrylamide formation.…”

Asparagine accumulation in chicory storage roots is controlled by translocation and feedback regulation of asparagine biosynthesis in leaves

“…Asn is considered to serve as a major transport compound in the xylem from the root to the leaves and in the phloem from the leaves to the developing seeds in several model and leguminous species that have been investigated (Amarante et al , 2006; Lea et al , 2007; Krapp, 2015) This model is also corroborated by the high nitrogen to carbon ratio of Asn (Coruzzi, 2003) Previous studies aiming at determining the AA potential in crop species have revealed that genetic variability exists in the accumulation of Asn in plant organs (Halford et al , 2012; Postles et al , 2013; Curtis & Halford, 2016; Muttucumaru et al , 2017; Curtis et al , 2018) In the present study, we could identify chicory genotypes contrasting for Asn accumulation in storage roots and demonstrate that diversity in Asn accumulation relates to the expression of Asn biosynthetic genes. Noticeably, we found a positive correlation between the gene expression of the Asn biosynthetic genes in leaves and the Asn level in storage roots (figs.…”

Preparation and characterisation of a novel hydrogel based on Auricularia polytricha β‐glucan and its bio‐release property for vitamin B12 delivery

“…Although GMA and AA have been regarded as a 'probable human carcinogens', 34 according to the opinion on threshold of toxicological concern, 35 the no-observed-effect level (NOEL) is 0.2 mg kg −1 body weight. 36 In this study, 1800 μL GMA and 90 μg AA were used in every 10 g hydrogels, a person weighing 60 kg intakes 0.01 g of hydrogels, the amount is only about 0.03 mg kg −1 body weight, which is far less than NOEL and ensures the safety as foods or drugs.…”