“…Given the spatial dimensions of environmental policies and economic agreements in a region, a series of research underlined the relevance of employing spatial models in determining the drivers of environmental quality (Pata and Samour, 2023;Chen & Lee, 2020;Dembi nska et al, 2022;Espoir & Sunge, 2021;Karahasan & Pinar, 2022;Ke et al, 2021;Mahmood, 2022;Murshed et al, 2020;Radmehr et al, 2021;Rios & Gianmoena, 2018;Tian et al, 2021;Usman, Alola, & Sarkodie, 2020;Wang & Zhu, 2020;Yang et al, 2019;Zambrano-Monserrate et al, 2020;Zhao et al, 2014). For instance, Wang and Zhu (2020) Although studies such as Wang and Zhu (2020) and Chen and Lee (2020) applied spatial models to identify the relationship between TI and environmental pollution, they had the following limitations.…”