Relationship between congenital anomalies and contraception

Spermicides, hormonal contraception and congenital malformations

“…However, the sample size was small, and recall bias would likely be amplified in mothers whose infants had multiple malformations. Later studies [1,[52][53][54][55] failed to confirm such an association, nor has any cohort study found an association between hormone exposure and either the VACTERL complex or any of its component parts (like cardiac or limb abnormalities) ( Table 3).…”

“…Several in vitro studies claimed increased chromosomal breakage in lymphocytes of contraceptive users [1]. In addition to general lack of confidence due to such studies usually being performed without 'blind' analysis, there are several positive lines of reassurance.…”

“…The indication could have been for pregnancy diagnosis, pregnancy maintenance, or birth control. Certain progesterones, namely the 19-nor-testosterones, norethisterone and norgestrel, can virilize female fetuses if administered in high doses at the susceptible period of pregnancy [1]; however, this dose is considerably in excess of that present in oral or injectable/implantable contraceptives. More relevant clinically are allegations that oral contraceptives are associated with cardiac defects, limb reduction defects, neural tube defects, hypospadias and other anomalies.…”

“…In 1985, a review by one of us concluded that there is little or no scientific basis for such claims [1]. Since then, additional data have substantiated this conclusion, particularly with respect to spermicides and hormonal contraception.…”

Copper intrauterine contraceptive devices and serum essential metals

“…Some of the principal issues raised regarding IUD safety are the relationship between its use and (a) menstrual blood loss [5--9], (b) the risk of pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) [10][11][12][13][14][15], and (c) the risk of congenital malformation [16].…”