Religion, Religiosity, and Nonmarital Sexual Conduct: An Application of Reference Group Theory

Abstract

The research reported within examines two hypotheses derived from reference group theory regarding the inverse effects of religiosity on the prevalence of premarital, extramarital, and homosexual relations across faith groups. The first hypothesis asserts that the strength of these inverse religiosity effects varies systematically across faith groups, such that as religious proscriptiveness increases, the effect of religiosity increases. The second hypothesis predicts that there will also be systematic variation in these effects across these forms of nonmarital sexual relations such that faith group variation in the effects of personal religiosity will be most evident with regard to premarital sexual relations but relatively invariant with regard to extramarital and homosexual relations. Using logistic regression analyses with data available in the National Opinion Research Center (NORC) 1988-1996 General Social Surveys, we find a mixed pattern of results which provides limited support for these hypotheses. Cochran and Beeghley (1991, pp. 45-6) argue that the five decades of social scientific research on the relationship(s) between religion and sexuality can be organized into "three steadily progressive periods" to which they recommend adding a new, fourth period of research. These are: (1) an early period in which the empirical research was largely descriptive in nature, atheoretical, and employed a rather low level of analytic sophistication; (2) a middle period characterized by improved, yet nascent, theoretical efforts and slightly more advanced statistical analyses (i.e., bivariate correlations); (3) the more recent theory-driven period in which the research designs have emphasized the use of least-squares regression techniques but restricted themselves to simple linear models; and (4) the current period in which the model specification errors of the previous period are being corrected through the utilization of advanced statistical modeling techniques that permit testing of theoretically appropriate, nonlinear functional forms. They conclude that the collective body of research throughout these four periods, which they claim to be based on more than 80 studies, has consistently revealed inverse relationships between religion/religiosity and nonmarital sexuality (attitudinal and/or behavioral).Despite longstanding Judeo-Christian doctrines of asceticism and traditions restricting sexual activity to married heterosexual couples (DeLamater 1981), Cochran and Beeghley caution against any conclusions that these relationships are simply "the empirical validation of common knowledge" or the "discovery

Associations Between Religiosity and Sexuality in a Representative Sample of Australian Adults

“…The need to assess both religion and frequency of attendance at religious services is similar to the need in health research to assess not only whether people drink alcohol, but how much alcohol they drink, because moderate alcohol consumption is beneficial for health, whereas excessive consumption is detrimental (White, 1999). The findings of the current study expand on those of Cochran et al (2004) in the U.S.A. by focusing on a more broad range of behaviors and attitudes within a large representative sample of Australian adults.…”

“…Combined measures of religion/religiosity enhance our understanding of the influence of religious belief on sexuality. One recent American study that did assess the intersection of religion and religiosity found that within religious groups, greater religiosity was associated with a lower likelihood of premarital sex, extramarital sex, and homosexual sex (Cochran et al, 2004). There is a need to determine whether similar effects are observed in different populations, for different sexual behaviors, and for sexual attitudes.…”

“…Studies of religion and sexuality commonly find that religious beliefs and/or activities are associated with more conservative sexual attitudes, later initiation of sexual behavior, and a more narrow range of sexual experiences (Cochran & Beeghley, 1991;Cochran, Chamlin, Beeghley, & Fenwick, 2004;Davidson, Moore, & Ullstrup, 2004;Hardy & Raffaelli, 2003;Jones, Darroch, & Singh, 2005;Laumann, Gagnon, Michael, & Michaels, 1994;Lefkowitz, Gillen, Shearer, & Boone, 2004;Leiblum, Wiegel, & Brickle, 2003;Lottes, Weinberg, & Weller, 1993;Meier, 2003;Miller & Gur, 2002;Paul, Fitzjohn, Eberhart-Phillips, Herbison, & Dickson, 2000;Rostosky, Regnerus, & Wright, 2003;Rostosky, Wilcox, Wright, & Randall, 2004;Sandfort, Bos, Haavio-Mannila, & Sundet, 1998;Zaleski & Schiaffino, 2000). The strongest evidence for links between religion/religiosity and sexual behavior comes from longitudinal prospective studies.…”

Religion and Gender Ideologies among Working-Age U.S. Latinas/os

“…Finally, religious groups may also convey patriarchal norms by valorizing gender traditionalism to laypersons within their communities in the assignment of domestic tasks such as cooking and child care to women while designating teaching and leadership positions to men. It is also possible that religious communities serve as 'reference groups,' whereby members conform to their norms by modeling desirable and acceptable lifestyles out of fear of informal sanctions (e.g., (Cochran et al 2004)). …”

The Middle Class Is Synonymous with Corruption in Sub-Sahara Africa

“…In this respect, the ethical values of responsibility, respect, and beneficence resonates more aptly with the Sub-Saharan Africa's cultural hierarchy and power dynamics between the old and young, between wives and husbands, and between the rich and poor (Buchanan, 2008;Beauchamp & Childress, 2001;Norman, Aikins, & Binka, 2010;Castellano, 2004). Finally, religion has been found to moderate certain negative conduct including corruption or addiction (Beita, 2008;Durham Jr., 2008;Feldman, 2005;Cochran et al, 2004;Brothers, 1993;Carter, 1993;Prest & Keller, 1993;Berman, 1983). Even though the Ghanaian identifies first with the family before the nation, it appears religious affiliation is insidiously replacing the family for determining one's belonging identity.…”