Religious and spiritual struggles around the 2016 and 2020 U.S. presidential elections.

Abstract

This project focused on religious/spiritual (r/s) struggles reported by U.S. adults around the 2016 and 2020 U.S. Presidential elections. Two separate samples of U.S. Mechanical Turk workers completed surveys about the 2016 (N = 504) and 2020 (N = 618) elections, with cross-sectional data collected between each election and the inauguration. Overall levels of r/s struggle were similar between the two elections. In 2016, Democratic voters (those voting for Clinton) struggled more than Republican voters (those voting for Trump), whereas in 2020, Trump and Biden voters struggled at similar levels. In both elections, interpersonal struggles around religion were the top-rated r/s struggle for Democratic voters, whereas Republican voters showed a more even balance of struggles (divine, demonic, interpersonal, moral, ultimate meaning, and doubt). Yet, aside from these straightforward differences in struggle based on whether one's preferred candidate won or lost, correlations, regressions, and path models revealed similar predictors of struggle across both elections: more negative reactions to election results, greater religiousness, more demonic attributions, more divine attributions (especially negative attributions about God's intent), more right-wing authoritarianism (specifically, authoritarian aggression/submission; clearest in 2020), and more anger at both Democrats and Republicans. Taken together, these findings suggest that major societal events such as Presidential elections have the potential to trigger r/s struggles for many individuals. Given the current level of political polarization in the U.S., along with the many ways in which politics and religion can become intertwined, the nature, causes, and consequences of politically focused r/s struggles merit more research attention.

Do Religious Struggles Mediate the Association Between Neighborhood Disorder and Health in the United States?

“…Although we are primarily interested in the indirect effects of neighborhood disorder, the direct effects are also noteworthy. While previous studies have linked various strains (e.g., poor health, discrimination, and financial difficulties) with greater religious struggles (Ai et al, 2010 ; Ellison & Lee 2010 ; Exline et al, 2011 ; Exline et al, 2021a ; Fitchett et al, 2004 ; Gall et al, 2009 ; Hill et al, 2017 ; Koenig et al, 1998 ; Krause & Hayward, 2012 ; Krause et al, 2017a , 2017b ; Pargament et al, 1998 ; Stauner et al, 2019 ; Wortmann et al, 2011 ), we extend this body of work to the stressful conditions of neighborhood disorder. We also found that neighborhood disorder was associated with higher levels of anger, psychological distress, and sleep disturbance, which is consistent with previous studies (Chen-Edinboro et al, 2015 ; Christie-Mizell et al, 2003 ; DeSantis et al, 2016 ; Hill & Maimon, 2013 ; Hill et al, 2009 , 2016 ; Hunter & Hayden, 2018 ; Johnson et al, 2016 ; Krause et al, 2017a , 2017b ; O’Brien et al, 2019 ; Ross, 2000 ; Ross & Mirowsky, 2009 ; Schieman & Meersman, 2004 ; Schieman et al, 2006 ).…”

“…For many, this shattering of assumptions extends to the spiritual dimension of their lives.” While many people turn to religion for guidance and comfort to cope with adversity, others turn away from their faith and deeply held religious beliefs when they can no longer make coherent religious sense of their lives. Indeed, several studies have linked higher levels of religious struggles with a range of strains, including adverse health conditions, disability, financial difficulties, discrimination, the outcomes of presidential elections, and other stressful or traumatic life events (Ai et al, 2010 ; Ellison & Lee, 2010 ; Exline et al, 2011 , 2021a ; Fitchett et al, 2004 ; Gall et al, 2009 ; Hill et al, 2017 ; Koenig et al, 1998 ; Krause & Hayward, 2012 ; Krause et al, 2017a , 2017b ; Pargament et al, 1998 ; Stauner et al, 2019 ; Wortmann et al, 2011 ).…”

Matters of the Heart: Childhood Maltreatment, Religious Transitions, and Cardiovascular-Related Problems over the Life Course

“…Childhood abuse may affect cardiovascular-related risk at a later time point by either limiting or altering one’s access to social support that might be helpful for coping with stress (Umberson et al, 2014). Furthermore, religious decline could also be a form of an unresolved spiritual struggle, of questioning the nature and goodness of God (Exline et al, 2020; Exline, Wilt, Stauner, & Pargament, 2021), which are known to be associated with lower mental and physical well-being (Ellison et al, 2013; Hill et al, 2021; Upenieks, 2021). There is also some evidence that declines in attendance over time are associated with a higher risk of engaging in smoking behavior (Upenieks & Schafer, 2020) and illicit substance use (Guo & Metcalfe, 2019), both of which increase the risk of cardiovascular-related problems.…”

Pandemic Job Separation and Psychological Distress: Modeling Chains of Adversity

“…While many people turn to religion for guidance and comfort to cope with adversity, others turn away from their faith and deeply held religious beliefs when they can no longer make consistent or coherent religious meaning in their lives. Indeed, several studies have linked higher levels of religious struggles with a range of strains, including financial difficulties, adverse health conditions, discrimination, presidential elections, and other stressful or traumatic life events (Ai et al 2010;Ellison and Lee 2010;Exline et al 2011;Exline et al forthcoming;Fitchett et al 2004;Gall et al 2009;Hill et al 2017;Koenig et al 1998;Krause and Hayward 2012;Krause, Pargament, and Ironson 2017;Pargament et al 1998;Stauner et al 2019;Wortmann et al 2011). For example, an interview excerpt provided by Nierobisz and Sawchuk (2018:341) offers an especially lucid illustration of religious struggles in the life of an unemployed man: "God ain't paying my mortgage, you know?…”

“…Magyar-Russell and Pargament (2006:102) note that “…negative life events, loss, and trauma often shatter previously held assumptions about the benevolence, fairness, and meaningfulness of the world,” and “for many this shattering of assumptions extends to the spiritual dimension of their lives.” Krause and colleagues (2017:621) also explain that “people who experience ongoing economic problems, poor neighborhood conditions, and other related stressors may find it increasingly difficult to sustain the belief that God is benevolent and working for the best in their lives.” While many people turn to religion for guidance and comfort to cope with adversity, others turn away from their faith and deeply held religious beliefs when they can no longer make consistent or coherent religious meaning in their lives. Indeed, several studies have linked higher levels of religious struggles with a range of strains, including financial difficulties, adverse health conditions, discrimination, presidential elections, and other stressful or traumatic life events (Ai et al 2010; Ellison and Lee 2010; Exline et al 2011; Exline et al forthcoming; Fitchett et al 2004; Gall et al 2009; Hill et al 2017; Koenig et al 1998; Krause and Hayward 2012; Krause, Pargament, and Ironson 2017; Pargament et al 1998; Stauner et al 2019; Wortmann et al 2011). For example, an interview excerpt provided by Nierobisz and Sawchuk (2018:341) offers an especially lucid illustration of religious struggles in the life of an unemployed man: “God ain’t paying my mortgage, you know?…”