Reproductive performance of the largest captive Asian elephant ( Elephas maximus ) population in Sri Lanka

Pushpakumara, P. G. A.; Rajapakse, R. C.; Perera, B.M.A.O.; Brown, Janine L.

doi:10.1016/j.anireprosci.2016.09.010

Cited by 12 publications

(7 citation statements)

References 32 publications

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“…The lack of a comprehensive record keeping system in Thailand precludes determining if there is a similar sex bias in calf mortality. Under more natural conditions, like a semi-captive population at the Pinnawala Elephant Orphanage in Sri Lanka ( Pushpakumara et al, 2016 ) or in the wild ( Sukumar, Ramakrishnan & Santosh, 1998 ), the sex ratio at birth is closer to 1:1. An interesting finding was that the sex ratios differed across age categories.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Changing trends in elephant camp management in northern Thailand and implications for welfare

Bansiddhi

Brown

Thitaram

et al. 2018

PeerJ

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BackgroundElephant camps are among the most attractive destinations in Thailand for tourists from many countries. A wide range of management strategies are used by these camps, which can have varied impacts on health and welfare of elephants.MethodsThis study surveyed 33 camps with 627 elephants in northern Thailand to quantify the types of management practices and work activities experienced by captive elephants. The survey consisted of an interview with camp owners, and direct observations of camp operations.ResultsData revealed considerable variation in elephant demographics, work activities, elephant care (i.e., housing, restraint, nutrition, health care, and breeding), and mahout management among the camps. In general, older camps (those in existence for >16 years) were involved in more intensive activities, like riding with saddles and shows. By contrast, newer camps provided more one-on-one activities for tourists and elephants, and emphasized more intimate, relaxing experiences (e.g., feeding, bathing, walking) than entertainment. A demographic shift also was observed, with elephants 20 years of age and younger having a sex ratio closer to 1:1 compared to elephants in older age categories (1:4.1–1:9.8).DiscussionShifts in elephant management to less intensive activities were observed, which could have positive implications for elephant welfare. The shifting sex ratio suggests successful captive breeding is resulting in the birth of more males, which could present new welfare challenges in the future, because bulls can be more difficult to manage and socialize, and are more likely to be kept isolated during musth. Ultimately, the goal is to understand how camp activities affect welfare, and to develop science-based guidelines and standards to aid in the management of both male and female elephants used in tourism.

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Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Changing trends in elephant camp management in northern Thailand and implications for welfare

Bansiddhi

Brown

Thitaram

et al. 2018

PeerJ

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“…As the quality of forage in that area was highest at the time when conceptions peak (Pushpakumara et al. ), it is likely that nutrition and body condition had an influence on the conception peak in this population.…”

Section: Factors Influencing Reproduction In Free‐ranging Semi‐captimentioning

confidence: 95%

“…In Sri Lanka at a latitude of 6.88°N, captive Asian elephants at the Pinnawala Elephant Orphanage showed conception peaks in the wettest months from September to October in the short‐day period (Pushpakumara et al. ).…”

Section: Breeding Seasonality In Asian Elephantsmentioning

confidence: 99%

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Seasonality of reproduction in Asian elephantsElephas maximusand African elephantsLoxodonta africana: underlying photoperiodic cueing?

et al. 2018

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Animals in seasonal environments often rely on photoperiodicity to time their reproduction. Elephants have a gestation length of approximately two years and a historical geographic distribution including higher latitudes than at present, so the evolution of a seasonal breeding pattern cued by photoperiodicity and timed to the long‐day period is a theoretical option in both species. We reviewed literature on reproductive patterns in free‐ranging, semi‐captive and captive Asian and African elephants, photoperiodic cueing, seasonal variation in body condition, and other factors influencing their reproduction, as well as data from zoological collections on the timing of births. Most of the free‐ranging and all the semi‐captive and captive elephant populations showed a moderate yet distinct seasonal breeding pattern. Peak breeding activity of free‐ranging Asian elephants took place in either the dry or the wet season, with no preference for short‐day or long‐day breeding at low latitudes (close to the equator) but a preference for long‐day breeding at higher latitudes. Semi‐captive Asian elephants mainly bred in the dry season when body condition was lowest and day‐lengths were increasing. Peak conception often occurred in the wet season in free‐ranging African elephants when body condition was highest, with no evident preference for short‐day or long‐day breeding at low latitudes but preference for long‐day breeding at higher latitudes. Asian and African elephants in zoos at latitudes from 43 to 53°N tended to conceive more often during spring and summer, i.e. when day‐lengths were increasing. Body condition was not reported to vary significantly throughout the year and was rather high compared to in the wild. We hypothesise that elephants are ‘long‐day breeders’ in which the photoperiodic timing of conception can be influenced by many additional factors. Strategies to encourage natural conception in captive populations should include measures aimed at increasing breeding incentives in the northern hemisphere spring.

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“…Meanwhile, due to the low reproductive rate, zoo-elephant populations are not self-sustaining (Wiese 2000; Clubb & Mason 2002; Clubb et al 2008; Thitaram 2012). Consequently, the state of the reproductive health of captive Asian elephants and influential factors have always been the focus of breeding management and care (Schmidt 1982; Schaftenaar & Hildebrandt 2006; Kumar et al 2014; Pushpakumara et al 2016).…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Obesity status and its relative factors of captive Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) in China based on body condition assessment

Tang,

Jia,

Zhou

et al. 2023

Preprint

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Obesity is a common health problem in captive wildlife. Since the obesity status of captive Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) in China has not previously been investigated, we recorded seven relevant variables (sex, age, daily feed supply, proportion of high-calorie feed, outdoor enclosure area, outdoor time, and foot disorder) related to obesity in 204 captive Asian elephants through field investigation of 43 elephant-raising facilities. Assessment of obesity was based on visual body condition scoring for each individual. It revealed that obesity was prevalent for captive Asian elephants (especially elephants in zoos) in China. Over 70% of captive Asian elephants in China were overweight or in obesity to various degrees. Statistical analysis showed that for elephants in zoos, insufficient outdoor time might be the primary potential cause of obesity. We suggested facilities to extend the outdoor time and control the supply of high-calorie feed (e.g., fruits, vegetables, pellets, etc.) for captive elephants, thereby alleviating obesity through increased exercise and a suitable energy intake. Moreover, all facilities should implement positive reinforcement training to facilitate regular physical examinations, including foot health checks and blood sampling. This training would improve the ability to collect more precise information relating to elephant health, obesity, and the evaluation of animal welfare.

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Reproductive performance of the largest captive Asian elephant ( Elephas maximus ) population in Sri Lanka

Cited by 12 publications

References 32 publications

Changing trends in elephant camp management in northern Thailand and implications for welfare

Changing trends in elephant camp management in northern Thailand and implications for welfare

Seasonality of reproduction in Asian elephantsElephas maximusand African elephantsLoxodonta africana: underlying photoperiodic cueing?

Obesity status and its relative factors of captive Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) in China based on body condition assessment

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