Residential Tap Water Contamination Following the Freedom Industries Chemical Spill: Perceptions, Water Quality, and Health Impacts

Abstract

During January 2014, an industrial solvent contaminated West Virginia’s Elk River and 15% of the state population’s tap water. A rapid in-home survey and water testing was conducted 2 weeks following the spill to understand resident perceptions, tap water chemical levels, and premise plumbing flushing effectiveness. Water odors were detected in all 10 homes sampled before and after premise plumbing flushing. Survey and medical data indicated flushing caused adverse health impacts. Bench-scale experiments and physiochemical property predictions showed flushing promoted chemical volatilization, and contaminants did not appreciably sorb into cross-linked polyethylene (PEX) pipe. Flushing reduced tap water 4-methylcyclohexanemethanol (4-MCHM) concentrations within some but not all homes. 4-MCHM was detected at unflushed (<10 to 420 μg/L) and flushed plumbing systems (<10 to 96 μg/L) and sometimes concentrations differed among faucets within each home. All waters contained less 4-MCHM than the 1000 μg/L Centers for Disease Control drinking water limit, but one home exceeded the 120 μg/L drinking water limit established by independent toxicologists. Nearly all households refused to resume water use activities after flushing because of water safety concerns. Science based flushing protocols should be developed to expedite recovery, minimize health impacts, and reduce concentrations in homes when future events occur.

Toxicity Assessment of 4-Methyl-1-cyclohexanemethanol and Its Metabolites in Response to a Recent Chemical Spill in West Virginia, USA

“…6,7 There are a number of other chemicals in the crude MCHM, including 4-(methoxymethyl) cyclohexanemethanol, methyl 4-methylcydohexanecarboxylate (MMCHC; 5%), dimethyl-1,4-cyclohexanedicarboxylate (1%), and 1, 4-cyclohexanedimethanol (1–2%) that all exist as cis- and trans-isomers. 5,8 The material PPH Stripped is reported to be primarily composed of dipropylene glycol phenyl ether (DiPPH) and propylene glycol phenyl ether (PPH). 8 Given the small percentage of PPH, DiPPH, and other chemicals in the tank, as well as their relatively lower reported toxicity (e.g., LD50 > 2000 mg/kg for PPH versus 825 mg/kg for crude MCHM, 707–1768 mg/kg for pure 4-MCHM in different reports), 6,9 we focused on the toxicity of the main pollutant 4-MCHM in this study.…”

“…18 Recently, the EPA announced a healthbased 30-day air screening level of 0.010 ppm for 4-MCHM. 5,19 …”

Fit-for-purpose block polymer membranes molecularly engineered for water treatment

“…Simultaneously, human activity has degraded the quality of these vital resources through the discharge of chemicals into ground and surface waters, [1][2][3] while the deterioration of centralized water distribution systems hinders conservation of these resources. [4][5][6] As pressure from these factors mounts, a recognition has emerged that, along with better conservation and management of existing resources, nontraditional sources of water (e.g., seawater, brackish water, and wastewater) will need to become components of the water supply portfolio.…”

“…Strategies to control the gutter layer structure have been studied extensively for the PI-PS-P4VP system with the chemical composition and temperature of non-solvent bath and the introduction of additives in the casting solution being examined systematically. 72,73 For example, the inclusion of additives that modify the rate of solvent exchange (i.e., TiO 2 75 and glycerol 76 ) in the casting solution drove the formation of a highly-porous support layer. In these cases, the cross-sectional structures do not contribute significantly to the overall hydraulic resistance and the potential of the self-assembled block polymer membranes has been realized.…”

Evaluation of 4-methylcyclohexanemethanol (MCHM) in a combined irritancy and Local Lymph Node Assay (LLNA) in mice

“…68–88%), but also contains other related chemicals [detailed lists of chemical constituents is provided on the National Toxicology Program (NTP) website (NTP, 2015)]. The greatest measured concentration of MCHM in the spilled liquid entering or leaving the water treatment facility was 3.35 mg/L (Whelton et al, 2015). Concentrations of crude MCHM in tap water following the spill and prior to flushing were much lower, ranging from <10 to 420 ppb (Whelton et al, 2015); the upper level being slightly below the short-term drinking water limit of 1 ppm for a 10 kg child established by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) in response to the spill (Schade et al, 2015).…”