Response expectancy as a determinant of experience and behavior.

Abstract

Response expectancies, defined as expectancies of the occurrence of nonvolitional responses, have generally been ignored in theories of learning. Research on placebos, hypnosis, and fear reduction indicates that response expectancies generate corresponding subjective experiences. In many cases, the genuineness of these self-reported effects has been substantiated by corresponding changes in behavior and physiological function. The means by which response expectancies affect experience, physiology, and behavior are hypothesized to vary as a function of response mode. The generation of changes in subjective experience by corresponding response expectancies is hypothesized to be a basic psychological mechanism. Physiological effects are accounted for by the mindbody identity assumption that is common to all nondualist philosophies of psychology. The effects of response expectancies on volitional behavior are due to the reinforcing properties of many nonvolitional responses. Classical conditioning appears to be one method by which response expectancies are acquired, but response expectancy effects that are inconsistent with a conditioning hypothesis are also documented.Expectancy is a central construct in a number of influential theories of learning (Bolles, 1972;Rotter, 1954;Tolman, 1932). BoUes (1972) classified expectancy constructs into two types. R-S expectancies are beliefs about the relation between behavior and environmental consequences. S-S expectancies are beliefs that certain stimulus events or cues predict the occurrence of other stimulus events. The purpose of this article is to draw attention to a type of expectancy that has demonstrable effects on experience, behavior, and physiological function but that has not been considered in previous learning theories. Response expectancies are expectancies of the occurrence of nonvolitional responses, either as a function of behavior (R-R expectancies) or as a function of specific stimuli (S-R expectancies). In Rotter's (1954) social learning theory, the occurrence of a response is hypothesized to be a function of the expectancy that the behavior will be reinforced and of the value of the expected reinforcement. However, Rotter's theory is limited to the prediction of voluntary behavior. The response Placebo EffectsPlacebos are substances that are administered in the guise of active drugs but that do not in fact have the pharmacological properties attributed to them. Placebos can reduce clinical pain, increase arousal to erotic stimuli, reduce generalized anxiety and depression, cause or reduce feelings of nausea, and induce feelings of alertness, tension, relaxation, or drowsiness. These subjective responses are frequently accompanied by corresponding physiological changes, for example, changes in pulse rate, blood pressure, galvanic skin response, gastric function, penile tumescence, skin conditions, and possibly endorphin activity in the brain (Barber, 1978; Madatt & Rohsenow, 1980;Ross & Olson, 1982;Ross & Buckalew, 1983).Placebo effects generally correspon...

Personality Trait Predictors of Placebo Analgesia and Neurobiological Correlates

“…Expectation of placebo analgesia was not significantly correlated with placebo response (r ¼ 0.19, P ¼ 0.19), while the difference between subjectively assessed and initially expected efficacy, which represents a measure of comparisons between expected and subjectively observed effects, was correlated with placebo response (r ¼ 0.38, P ¼ 0.008). These results suggest that positive expectations of placebo analgesia, a classical mechanism for the formation of unconditioned placebo responses (Kirsch, 1985), might not be sufficient for the development of placebo responses. No sex differences were observed in these measures.…”

Neurophysiology of pain and hypnosis for chronic pain

“…First, given the strong evidence that hypnosis is an effective treatment for chronic pain, coupled with its cost-effectiveness and minimal side effects [80,81], it can be concluded that hypnosis is a reasonable approach for clinicians to use for helping patients better manage with chronic pain. Second, given evidence that adding hypnosis to other treatments, such as CBT [25] or cognitive therapy [24], may enhance the efficacy of those treatments, hypnosis can be considered a reasonable adjunct to other psychological interventions. Therefore, clinicians who treat patients with chronic pain would do well to consider learning and incorporating hypnotic techniques into their practice.…”

“…for hypnosis to enhance the benefits of other psychological interventions [20,[24][25][26][27] and physical interventions, including medications and standard medical care [22,[28][29][30]. During hypnosis, individuals are given an invitation to focus their attention through an induction, followed by suggestions for change or improvement [31].…”

Effects of written emotional expression: The role of positive expectancies.

“…The link between expectancies and the impact of stressful events is considered to be either direct (e.g., Kirsch, 1985Kirsch, , 1990 or indirect (e.g., mediated by coping activities; Scheier et al, 2001). The link between expectancies and physical health seems to be mediated by emotional distress.…”

“…These findings can easily be integrated into Kirsch's (1985Kirsch's ( , 1990) concept of response expectancies, which he defined as expectancies concerning the occurrence of nonvolitional responses. According to this theoretical framework, response expectancies tend to be self-fulfilling.…”