“…Alternative mechanisms have thus been explored to drive particle migration using nonequilibrium gradients, e.g., surface tension gradients (Marangoni) (14,15), diffusiophoresis (16), electrophoresis (17), and chemotaxis (18). Nonequilibrium fluxes have been imposed using gradients of various salts (19)(20)(21), surfactants (22,23), polymers (24), and enzyme substrates (25) or of field variables like temperature (26), pH (27,28), or dissolved gas (29). A variety of particle types have been driven in this way, including solid particles, droplets, or bubbles (30)(31)(32), enzymes (25), and cells (33).…”