Review article: Snow and ice avalanches in high mountain Asia – scientific, local and indigenous knowledge

Abstract

Abstract. The cryosphere in high mountain Asia (HMA) not only sustains the livelihoods of people residing downstream through its capacity to store water but also holds the potential for hazards. One of these hazards, avalanches, so far remains inadequately studied, as the complex relationship between climate and potential triggers is poorly understood due to lack of long-term observations, inaccessibility, severe weather conditions, and financial and logistical constraints. In this study, the available literature was reviewed covering the period from the late 20th century to June 2022 to identify research and societal gaps and propose future directions of research and mitigation strategies. Beyond scientific literature, technical reports, newspapers, social media and other local sources were consulted to compile a comprehensive, open-access and version-controlled database of avalanche events and their associated impacts. Over 681 avalanches with more than 3131 human fatalities were identified in eight countries of the region. Afghanistan has the highest recorded avalanche fatalities (1057), followed by India (952) and Nepal (508). Additionally, 564 people lost their lives while climbing peaks above 4500 m a.s.l., one-third of which were staff employed as guides or porters. This makes it a less deadly hazard than in the less populated European Alps, for example, but with a considerably larger number of people affected who did not voluntarily expose themselves to avalanche risk. Although fatalities are significant, and local long-term impacts of avalanches may be considerable, so far, limited holistic adaptation or mitigation measures exist in the region. These measures generally rely on local and indigenous knowledge adapted to modern technologies. Considering the high impact avalanches have in the region, we suggest to further develop adaptation measures including hazard zonation maps based on datasets of historic events and modelling efforts. This should, however, happen acknowledging the already existing knowledge in the region and in close coordination with communities, local government and civil society stakeholders. More research studies should also be attempted to understand the trends and drivers of avalanches in the region.

A comprehensive and version-controlled database of glacial lake outburst floods in High Mountain Asia

“…Comparing this number to other mountain hazards in the region is difficult, as data are rare. Snow and ice avalanches (excluding mountaineering accidents) in the same region have resulted in more than 3000 fatalities, with records only starting in the 1970s (Acharya et al, 2023). Landslide fatalities for countries entirely in HMA suggest 67 deaths in Afghanistan, 50 in Bhutan, 809 in Nepal, and 75 in Tajikistan between 2004(Petley, 2012, suggesting this hazard to be considerably more dangerous to human life.…”

Remote Sensing and Modeling of the Cryosphere in High Mountain Asia: A Multidisciplinary Review

“…The first snow and ice avalanche database in HMA, HiAVAL, captured 681 events collected from available records or previous studies between 1972 and 2022 [13]. In addition, eight actual large-volume, low-angle glacier detachments in HMA were compiled and investigated [7].…”

“…Historical data demonstrate that there were 697 individual GLOFs that occurred in HMA from 1833 to 2022, resulting in 6906 fatalities [12]. More recent data indicate that there were 681 snow and ice avalanche events that occurred in HMA between 1972 and 2022, resulting in more than 3100 fatalities [13].…”

Investigating snow avalanche in the Sikkim Himalaya through coherence and displacement mapping of Sentinel-1A SAR data

“…There is documented evidence of both direct and indirect glacial hazards, including snow/ice avalanches, glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs), glacier detachments, and surges, breaching of moraine-dammed lakes after intensive rainfall or damage to irrigation systems caused by retreating glaciers (Richardson and Reynolds, 2000). Avalanches are one type of danger that has received little attention in the local scientific literature (Acharya et al 2023). Due to several factors including a lack of long-term observations, accessibility issues, extreme weather, and logistical and budgetary limitations, one of these dangers, avalanches, has not received enough attention in the past.…”