Review of Cyanotoxicity Studies Based on Cell Cultures

Abstract

Cyanotoxins (CTs) are a large and diverse group of toxins produced by the peculiar photosynthetic prokaryotes of the domain Cyanoprokaryota. Toxin-producing aquatic cyanoprokaryotes can develop in mass, causing “water blooms” or “cyanoblooms,” which may lead to environmental disaster—water poisoning, extinction of aquatic life, and even to human death. CT studies on single cells and cells in culture are an important stage of toxicological studies with increasing impact for their further use for scientific and clinical purposes, and for policies of environmental protection. The higher cost of animal use and continuous resistance to the use of animals for scientific and toxicological studies lead to a progressive increase of cell lines use. This review aims to present (1) the important results of the effects of CT on human and animal cell lines, (2) the methods and concentrations used to obtain these results, (3) the studied cell lines and their tissues of origin, and (4) the intracellular targets of CT. CTs reviewed are presented in alphabetical order as follows: aeruginosins, anatoxins, BMAA (β-N-methylamino-L-alanine), cylindrospermopsins, depsipeptides, lipopolysaccharides, lyngbyatoxins, microcystins, nodularins, cyanobacterial retinoids, and saxitoxins. The presence of all these data in a review allows in one look to advance the research on CT using cell cultures by facilitating the selection of the most appropriate methods, conditions, and cell lines for future toxicological, pharmacological, and physiological studies.

Grazing preferences of three species of amoebae on cyanobacteria and green algae

“…Cyanobacteria produce a vast array of secondary metabolites (> 2000 identified molecules), many of which have negative effects on animals and humans (Jones et al., 2021). The harmful metabolites include, but are not limited to, the various cyanotoxins that include the microcystins (hepatotoxins) and the neurotoxins anatoxins/guanitoxin (Fiore et al., 2020; Sazdova et al., 2022) along with L‐BMAA and its isomers (Schneider et al., 2020). The metabolites are released into the water under various conditions, with the microcystins being released upon cyanobacterial cell lysis (McKindles et al., 2020; Rzymski et al., 2020).…”

β-N-Methylamino-L-Alanine (BMAA) Modulates the Sympathetic Regulation and Homeostasis of Polyamines

“…BMAA is known as a neurotoxin that is harmful for a wide variety of neurons and glial cells [ 11 , 12 , 13 ]. Neurodegenerative conditions, such as Parkinson’s disease, Alzheimer’s disease, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis are associated with BMAA incidences [ 14 , 15 , 16 , 17 ].…”

“…Therefore, mitochondrial Ca 2+ overload can lead to oxidative stress and protein misfolding followed by proteostatic collapse and neurodegeneration, which is often manifested in Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s disease [ 17 , 25 , 26 ]. A Ca 2+ overload, high values of ROS, and decreased cell viability in the presence of BMAA are also observed in non-neuronal cells, and these effects depend on the cyanotoxin concentration [ 12 , 13 ]. The BMAA-induced activation of respiratory chains in the inner mitochondrial membrane that enhances transmembrane H + transport is paradoxically followed by a decrease instead of an increase in its negative membrane potential (∆Ψm) in the presence of toxins [ 23 , 27 ].…”

“…Data on non-neuronal BMAA toxicity are scare [ 1 , 12 , 13 ]. Liu et al [ 29 ] reported that BMAA inhibited cysteine/glutamate antiporter, which led to depletion of the antioxidant glutathione (GSH).…”

Allelopathic Potential of the Cyanotoxins Microcystin-LR and Cylindrospermopsin on Green Algae

“…This is mainly due to a group of secondary metabolites known as cyanotoxins. The cytotoxic effects of these compounds have been well studied in animals and humans [ 3 , 4 ], but there are many questions regarding their effects on the coexisting phytoplankton communities [ 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 ]. There is still no consensus on the ecological role of the cyanobacterial toxins [ 6 , 10 , 11 , 12 ].…”