Review of the foot and mouth disease situation in North Africa and the risk of introducing the disease into Europe

Abstract

Foot and mouth disease (FMD) is a highly contagious disease of cloven-hoofed animals, including cattle, pigs, sheep, goats, and certain wildlife species. The disease can cause massive economic losses when introduced into countries that were free from the infection, generating negative effects due to reduced animal productivity and restrictions on international livestock trade. Following 15 years of FMD absence, Tunisia and Algeria experienced an incursion of the disease in 2014. The epidemiological situation and disease control measures in operation for FMD in the North African region are not homogeneous. The FMD virus detected in Tunisia and Algeria during the epidemic in 2014 showed 99% identity with a strain isolated in Libya in 2013. Morocco was not affected by the 2014 epidemic but it started a preventive vaccination campaign for cattle in August of that year. The relatively short distance between the North African continent and southern Europe may facilitate the introduction of pathogens, including FMD virus. The history of infectious diseases demonstrates that the Mediterranean Sea is not a sufficient barrier to viral infections. Considering the geography and the FMD situation in North African countries, strong and coordinated intervention strategies are required, including economic, political and disease control aspects, to prevent the spread of FMD to other countries in North Africa or to other regions, e.g. southern Europe. Regional platforms such as the Mediterranean Animal Health Network (REMESA) could play a crucial role in coordinating and managing animal health crises, such as the 2014 FMD epidemic.

Serological and molecular epidemiology of foot‐and‐mouth disease viruses in agro‐pastoralist livestock herds in the kachia grazing reserve, Nigeria

“…Related to trade it is clear that higher cattle prices at Nigerian markets attract cattle especially from Niger and Chad (Mubi, Muhammad, & Midau, ). The relationship between FMD isolates in Nigeria and those in North‐African countries was surprising at the time of the study but is meanwhile supported by the close relationship found between the FMDV‐A strain causing the outbreak in Algeria and Tunisia in 2017 (Bouguedour & Ripani, ; Kardjadj, ; ProMED‐mail, ) and the FMDV‐A circulating in Nigeria (Ehizibolo et al, ; Vandenbussche et al, ). The contact between Nigeria and Northern African countries might be indirectly through contact of their neighbours with those countries.…”

Overview of foot‐and‐mouth disease awareness among farmers and veterinarians in France

“…1 The spread of the virus is difficult to limit, even if vaccination campaigns have been implemented in some affected and neighbouring areas. 2 FMD has been absent from the EU for several years and currently, all countries of the EU are considered as FMD free without vaccination. 3 The last two major outbreaks occurred in the UK, in 2001, during which 4 million animals were culled and for which £2.7 billion have been spent, 4 and in 2007, when there was an escape of a strain from the Pirbright laboratory site.…”

“…For example, the O/ME‐SA/Ind‐2001 strain identified in India in 2008 was found in Saudi Arabia and Libya in 2013, and then in Tunisia and Algeria in 2014–2015 1 . The spread of the virus is difficult to limit, even if vaccination campaigns have been implemented in some affected and neighbouring areas 2 …”

Early Growth Response Gene-1 Suppresses Foot-and-Mouth Disease Virus Replication by Enhancing Type I Interferon Pathway Signal Transduction

“…Therefore, FMDV causes an acute vesicular disease of infected animals, which is called foot-and-mouth disease (FMD). FMD is a highly contagious disease that can lead to significant economic losses to the local livestock industry ( Rweyemamu et al, 2008a ; Paton and Taylor, 2011 ; Zai-Xin, 2015 ; Bouguedour and Ripani, 2016 ). The understanding of host-FMDV interaction as well as the involved mechanism contributes to the planning of new strategies for FMD prevention ( Domingo et al, 2005 ; Rweyemamu et al, 2008b ; Rodriguez Pulido and Saiz, 2017 ).…”