Review of the Windmill Pitch: Biomechanics and Injuries

Doyle, Faith M.

doi:10.1016/s0899-3467(07)60086-x

Cited by 9 publications

(10 citation statements)

References 19 publications

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“…The primary aim of our study was to assess the characteristics of softball pitchers' upper and lower extremity ROM and strength and compare these characteristics across level of competition. To our knowledge, this is the first study to compare high school and collegiate athletes across levels of play and to examine hip extension and hip and shoulder flexion ROM . Ultimately, our objective is to contribute to a better understanding of expected joint health among female softball pitchers.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 98%

“…We found that shoulder IR strength was greater in the throwing arm. During the delivery phase of the windmill pitch, the shoulder of the throwing arm internally rotates rapidly . This repeated motion may contribute to the increased IR strength of the throwing arm.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…The descriptive data reported in this study can serve as a foundation for future research. Though several studies have begun to investigate the biomechanics of the windmill pitch and shoulder and hip ROM and upper and lower extremity motor activation patterns, our understanding is far from complete . We do not know the upper and lower extremity strength and ROM that is required for optimal performance and injury prevention.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…In addition, windmill pitching has also been shown to have a higher risk of an injury lasting longer than 2 weeks, when compared to nonpitching softball injuries . Studies have shown that some stresses that occur during windmill‐style pitching are comparable to those reported during baseball . Given the relatively high number of pitches thrown by softball pitchers, the cumulative load of the windmill pitch may be detrimental to upper and lower extremity joint and soft tissue health …”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

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Strength and Motion in the Shoulder, Elbow, and Hip in Softball Windmill Pitchers

West

Scarborough

McInnis

et al. 2019

PM&R

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Background: Softball pitching is a ballistic, complex movement that requires an underhand windmill motion to create force and ball velocity. In addition to proper pitch biomechanics, upper and lower extremity strength and joint motion likely contribute to ball location accuracy and velocity. Yet, the number of studies reporting muscle strength and joint range of motion among softball pitchers is scarce.Objective: To assess differences between throwing and nonthrowing shoulder, elbow, and hip (lead and trail leg) strength and range of motion (ROM) in high school and collegiate level softball windmill pitchers. Design: Cross-sectional study. Participants: Thirty-three female softball pitchers (24 high school, 9 collegiate) were recruited from local teams. Methods: Goniometric joint ROM and handheld dynamometer strength measurements of the bilateral shoulders, elbows, and hips were measured. Main Outcome Measurements: Goniometric joint ROM of the bilateral elbows (flexion, extension), shoulders, and hips (flexion, extension, internal rotation [IR], external rotation [ER]). Handheld dynamometer strength measurements of the bilateral shoulders (flexion, extension, abduction, IR, ER), elbows (flexion, extension), and hips (flexion, extension, IR, ER, abduction). Results: Across all pitchers, there was greater shoulder flexion ROM in the nonthrowing limb than in the throwing limb (P = .004). There was greater hip extension in the lead leg than trail leg. Among high school pitchers, there was greater shoulder ER (x = 105.792 AE 7.11) than collegiate pitchers (x = 100.1 AE 6.92), P = .05. There was no difference in total arc of shoulder rotational motion (ER+ IR) between throwing and nonthrowing limbs across all pitchers, nor between high school and collegiate pitchers. Strength measures demonstrated greater throwing limb shoulder abduction (P = .006) and IR strength (P = .001) than the nonthrowing shoulder across all pitchers. Elbow flexion strength was significantly greater than the nonthrowing side (P = .001). No difference was noted in hip strength between lead and trail lower extremities. Conclusions: Developing normative data for softball pitchers upper and lower extremity strength and range of motion may allow providers to assess players more comprehensively and identify athletes out of the expected value range. This information may help in guiding strength and conditioning programs for softball pitchers.

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Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 98%

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

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Strength and Motion in the Shoulder, Elbow, and Hip in Softball Windmill Pitchers

West

Scarborough

McInnis

et al. 2019

PM&R

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“…However, the majority of studies have focused on shoulder musculature and function—specifically the deltoid muscle, rotator cuff musculature, the pectoralis major, the serratus anterior, the biceps brachii muscle, the latissimus dorsi, and the triceps muscle. 2 , 4 While these studies have provided insight into the shoulder musculature during windmill pitching, there have not been any studies evaluating the musculature of the forearm. 2 , 5 , 6 Argo et al 1 published a series of elbow injuries and surgeries in female athletes.…”

mentioning

confidence: 99%

Surface Electromyography of the Forearm Musculature During the Windmill Softball Pitch

Remaley

Fincham

McCullough

et al. 2015

Orthopaedic Journal of Sports Medicine

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Background:Previous studies investigating the windmill softball pitch have focused primarily on shoulder musculature and function, collecting limited data on elbow and forearm musculature. Little information is available in the literature regarding the forearm. This study documents forearm muscle electromyographic (EMG) activity that has not been previously published.Purpose:Elbow and upper extremity overuse injuries are on the rise in fast-pitch softball pitchers. This study attempts to describe forearm muscle activity in softball pitchers during the windmill softball pitch. Overuse injuries can be prevented if a better understanding of mechanics is defined.Study Design:Descriptive laboratory study.Methods:Surface EMG and high-speed videography was used to study forearm muscle activation patterns during the windmill softball pitch on 10 female collegiate-level pitchers. Maximum voluntary isometric contraction of each muscle was used as a normalizing value. Each subject was tested during a single laboratory session per pitcher. Data included peak muscle activation, average muscle activation, and time to peak activation for 6 pitch types: fastball, changeup, riseball, curveball, screwball, and dropball.Results:During the first 4 phases, muscle activity (seen as signal strength on the EMG recordings) was limited and static in nature. The greatest activation occurred in phases 5 and 6, with increased signal strength, evidence of stretch-shortening cycle, and different muscle characteristics with each pitch style. These 2 phases of the windmill pitch are where the arm is placed in the 6 o’clock position and then at release of the ball. The flexor carpi ulnaris signal strength was significantly greater than the other forearm flexors. Timing of phases 1 through 5 was successively shorter for each pitch. There was a secondary pattern of activation in the flexor carpi ulnaris in phase 4 for all pitches except the fastball and riseball.Conclusion:During the 6 pitches, the greatest muscular activity was in phases 5 and 6. Flexor carpi ulnaris activity was greatest among the muscles tested. The riseball had the highest peak activity, but the curveball and dropball had the highest average signal strength. This muscle activity correlates with increasing distraction in the elbow, suggesting that flexor muscles act to counterdistract the elbow as they do for the baseball pitch.Clinical Relevance:Windmill pitchers are unique among overhead athletes as they throw, on average, more pitches per overhead athlete. Understanding the mechanics and physiology of the elbow in windmill pitchers is crucial to prevention and treatment of these increasingly common elbow injuries. This study establishes baseline data that will be useful to further prevent windmill pitch elbow injury.

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