Review: The risk of contracting anthrax from spore-contaminated soil – A military medical perspective

Abstract

<jats:title>Abstract</jats:title><jats:p>Anthrax is an infectious disease of relevance for military forces. Although spores of <jats:italic>Bacillus anthracis</jats:italic> obiquitously occur in soil, reports on soil-borne transmission to humans are scarce. In this narrative review, the potential of soil-borne transmission of anthrax to humans is discussed based on pathogen-specific characteristics and reports on anthrax in the course of several centuries of warfare. In theory, anthrax foci can pose a potential risk of infection to animals and humans if sufficient amounts of virulent spores are present in the soil even after an extended period of time. In praxis, however, transmissions are usually due to contacts with animal products and reported events of soil-based transmissions are scarce. In the history of warfare, even in the trenches of World War I, reported anthrax cases due to soil-contaminated wounds are virtually absent. Both the perspectives and the experience of the Western hemisphere and of former Soviet Republics are presented. Based on the accessible data as provided in the review, the transmission risk of anthrax by infections of wounds due to spore-contaminated soil is considered as very low under the most circumstance. Active historic anthrax foci may, however, still pose a risk to the health of deployed soldiers.</jats:p>

No hints for abundance of Bacillus anthracis and Burkholderia pseudomallei in 100 environmental samples from Cameroon

“…However, as well standardized methods were nevertheless applied, it seems at least justified to assume that the presence of high quantities of the targeted bacteria was virtually excluded by the approach. In particular for B. anthracis, which is an ongoing menace in various tropical settings [34], soil-borne transmission to humans in case of low pathogen density can be considered as unlikely [35], also in the Map e Basin of Cameroon.…”

Isolation and identification of avirulent strains of Bacillus anthracis from environmental samples in Central Java, Indonesia

“…Anthrax is also known as a soil disease, as the spores can survive longer in the soil. If the anthrax spores are swallowed by a susceptible host, there will be germination in the host body which can cause death [12]. Recent research showed that there is an indication of B. anthracis replication outside the host body, but this has not been consensual in the scientific community [37].…”

“…Controlling anthrax is challenging since the bacteria forms spores resistant to extreme conditions such as heat, cold, decay processes, chemical substances (including disinfectants), and radiations [2,3]. Sporulation occurs when the infected animal's blood contains B. anthracis vegetative cells which are exposed by oxygen, forming spores [11,12]. Environments frequently contaminated by B. anthracis in endemic areas are mainly soil, water, and hays or straws [13].…”

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“…Anthrax: Anthrax is an acute bacterial zoonosis of mainly wild and domestic herbivores (e.g., cattle, sheep, goats, donkeys, horses, reindeer, antelopes, and camels), although any warm-blooded animal might circumstantially get infected. It is caused by Bacillus anthracis and is occasionally transmitted to humans 28 . Anthrax in humans can result from occupational agricultural or industrial exposure and non-occupational (accidental or everyday) exposure 28, 29 .…”

“…Anthrax in humans can result from occupational agricultural or industrial exposure and non-occupational (accidental or everyday) exposure 28, 29 . Animal graves and burial sites, bio thermal pits, and other places for the disposal of animals that died of anthrax are referred to as anthrax (soil) foci, anthrax districts, or permanent anthrax foci 28 . It initially resembles a common cold (fever, chills, cough, chest pain, headache, and malaise).…”