Risk and protective factors of depression in the general population during the COVID-19 epidemic in Korea

Abstract

Background The risk of depression has risen in the general population during the COVID-19 epidemic. This study was conducted to explore risk and protective factors associated with depression among the general population uninfected by COVID-19. Methods A cross-sectional study was conducted with 1,500 representative South Korean citizens aged 19–65 years through an anonymous online survey. Depression was defined as a Patient Health Questionnaire-9 score of 10 or higher. Other questionnaires included one measuring psycho-behavioural and social changes, and stress, due to COVID-19, a six-item version of the Gratitude Questionnaire (GQ-6), and a three-item version of the UCLA loneliness scale. Results Of the 1492 participants not infected by COVID-19, 312 (20.9%) exhibited depression. Multiple logistic regression analysis revealed that depression was positively associated with COVID-19-related stress and psycho-behavioural variables such as disturbances in eating and sleeping, younger age, smoking, underlying mental illness, and loneliness scale scores. In contrast, exercise three or more times per week and GQ-6 scale scores were inversely associated with depression. Conclusion During the COVID-19 pandemic, maintaining daily routines including eating, sleeping, and regular exercise and focusing on gratitude may be important for the prevention of depression. In addition, more attention should be paid to vulnerable populations, including young people, those with mental illnesses, and smokers, who might be more susceptible to depression.

Factors Associated With Depression and Anxiety in Korean Adolescents During the COVID-19 Pandemic

“…18,77 In particular, our previous study of the general adult population showed that gratitude significantly protected against depression during the pandemic. 31 Gratitude might enhance people's coping resources and emotional well-being in the face of negative events. 78,79 In a study of American adolescents conducted during school closures due to the COVID-19 pandemic, "secondary engagement" coping mechanisms, such as gratitude, were associated with persistent positive emotions.…”

“…Gratitude was measured using the Korean version of the Gratitude Questionnaire-6 (K-GQ-6) adapted by Kwon et al 30 The K-GQ-6 items were scored based on intensity using a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree), with higher scores indicating a more grateful attitude and more positive emotions. 31 We analyzed total scores and the internal consistency was acceptable (Cronbach's α=0.703).…”

Development of a Checklist for Predicting Suicidality Based on Risk and Protective Factors: The Gwangju Checklist for Evaluation of Suicidality

“…115 Earlier studies of the Korean population showed that regular activity is a protective factor against depression and suicidal ideation. 116,117…”

Relationship Between Economic Loss and Anxiety During the Coronavirus Disease 2019 Pandemic: Moderating Effects of Knowledge, Gratitude, and Perceived Stress

“…Gratitude is a well-known concept in the field of positive psychology, and people with high levels of gratitude can find positive aspects even in negative situations and reinterpret events ( 26 ). Individuals with a lot of gratitude are highly satisfied with their lives, frequently experience optimistic or positive emotions, and have lower levels of depression and stress ( 27 , 28 ). In studies related to COVID-19, gratitude were positively associated with mental wellbeing during the lockdown in the United Kingdom ( 29 ).…”