Risk and Resilience Factors Associated With Formal and Informal Income Generation Among Homeless Young Adults in Three U.S. Cities

Abstract

This study used the risk and resilience framework to examine predictors of formal and informal sources of income among homeless young adults. Formal sources of income generation consisted of full-time, part-time, or paid, temporary work. Informal sources included earning money from selling personal possessions, selling drugs, and theft. In all, 601 homeless young adults from three U.S. cities participated in semi-structured interviews. Structural equation modeling assessed whether demographic, homelessness history, mental health, problem behaviors, and resilience predicted income generation source. Income generation from formal sources was associated with being male, having a greater number of problem behaviors, and reporting higher levels of resilience. Informal income generation was associated with younger age, being transient, and reporting a greater number of problem

Are resilience and perceived stress related to social support and housing stability among homeless adults with mental illness?

“…Both resilience and perceived stress are relevant to the experience of homelessness (Ferguson, Bender, & Thompson, ; Paul, Corneau, Boozary, & Stergiopoulos, ; Rayburn et al., ). Protecting against the experience of stress, for example, with increased resilience may be particularly important for homeless individuals who experience more health and social challenges than housed individuals, including physical health conditions (e.g.…”

Employment and Other Income Sources Among Homeless Youth

“…A few studies have assessed employment services and/or employment outcomes among homeless youth (Barman-Adhikari, & Rice, 2014; Ferguson, Bender, & Thompson, 2014, 2015a,b; Ferguson & Xie, 2008; Ferguson et al, 2012; Lenz-Rashid, 2006). Ferguson et al (2012) conducted a pilot study of Individual Placement and Support (IPS), an evidence-based approach developed for adults with severe mental illnesses (Becker & Drake, 2003; Drake, Bond, & Becker, 2012).…”

Street Youth, Social Schemas, and Crime

“…Past work documents that these youth are often drawn from homes where they experience emotional neglect and/or physical abuse (Baron, 2003a(Baron, , 2004Bender et al, 2014;Hagan & McCarthy, 1997;Kort-Butler et al, 2011;Thrane et al, 2006;Tyler & Johnson, 2006;Tyler & Melander, 2015;Whitbeck & Hoyt, 1999). Furthermore, the homelessness experience is characterized by a lack of reliable shelter, food, clothing, and financial support (Baron, 2004;Dachner & Tarasuk, 2002;Ferguson et al, 2015aFerguson et al, , 2015bFerguson et al, 2012;Gaetz & O'Grady, 2002;Hagan & McCarthy, 1997;O'Grady & Gaetz, 2004;Tyler & Johnson, 2004;Whitbeck & Hoyt, 1999). Street youth also suffer high rates of violent victimization on the street as a result of their exposure to offenders and participation in deviant survival strategies (Baron, 2003a;Bender et al, 2014;Gaetz, 2004;Hoyt et al, 1999;McCarthy et al, 2002;Tyler & Johnson, 2004;Tyler & Melander, 2015;Whitbeck & Hoyt, 1999).…”

“…Homeless street youth are a population immersed in extremely impoverished situations where food, shelter, clothing, and monetary funds are often absent and their provision unpredictable (Baron, 2004; Dachner & Tarasuk, 2002; Ferguson, Bender, & Thompson, 2015a, 2015b; Ferguson, Bender, Thompson, Maccio, & Pollio, 2012; Gaetz & O’Grady, 2002; Hagan & McCarthy, 1997; O’Grady & Gaetz, 2004; Tyler & Johnson, 2004). Street youth tend to be drawn from families characterized by neglect and/or abuse (Baron, 2003a; Bender, Thompson, Ferguson, Yoder, & Kern, 2014; Hagan & McCarthy, 1997; Kort-Butler, Tyler, & Melander, 2011; Thrane, Hoyt, Whitbeck, & Yoder, 2006; Tyler & Johnson, 2006; Whitbeck & Hoyt, 1999).…”

“…Street youth tend to be drawn from families characterized by neglect and/or abuse (Baron, 2003a; Bender, Thompson, Ferguson, Yoder, & Kern, 2014; Hagan & McCarthy, 1997; Kort-Butler, Tyler, & Melander, 2011; Thrane, Hoyt, Whitbeck, & Yoder, 2006; Tyler & Johnson, 2006; Whitbeck & Hoyt, 1999). They often experience high levels of violent victimization on the street (Baron, 2003a; Bender et al, 2014; Gaetz, 2004; Hoyt, Ryan, & Cauce, 1999; McCarthy, Hagan, & Martin, 2002; Tyler & Johnson, 2004; Tyler & Melander, 2015; Whitbeck & Hoyt, 1999), and they tend to share relationships with other youth who are involved in deviant activities (Baron, 2009; Ferguson et al, 2015a, 2015b; Ferguson et al, 2012; Hagan & McCarthy, 1997; McCarthy, 1996; McCarthy, Hagan, & Cohen, 1998; McCarthy et al, 2002; Tyler & Johnson, 2004; Whitbeck & Hoyt, 1999). These youth, therefore, have many negative social experiences that might provide the lessons that could be internalized to form a CKS encouraging or justifying crime.…”