Risk mapping and eco‐anthropogenic assessment of anthrax in the upper Zambezi basin

Abstract

In Zambia, anthrax has emerged as a serious disease decimating humans, livestock and wildlife with devastating effects on eco‐tourism resulting in the destabilization of major pristine wildlife sanctuaries. Consequently, the thrust of this study was to establish the spatial distribution of anthrax and determine ecological drivers of its recurrence, maintenance and epidemiological linkage to anthropogenic activities. Environmental and biological samples were collected within the livestock production and conservation areas (n = 80). Each sample was serially tested for Bacillus anthracis positivity through blood agar culture and Gram stain technique, and then confirmation by multiplex polymerase chain reaction (MPCR). Questionnaires (n = 113) were conducted at independently distinct villages in terms of space and time. Most respondents showed that animals that died from anthrax were not properly disposed off. More likely than not, poverty being the main driver for anthrax carcass dressing and meat distribution contributed to environmental contamination with anthrax spores in areas where the animals subsequently died resulting in further environmental contamination, which is the major source of primary infection for livestock and wildlife. From the samples, 15 pure isolates of anthrax were obtained which were spatially distributed across four districts. Twelve, biologically plausible variables were found to be highly significant on multivariable logistic regression analysis model for questionnaires which included herd size (odds = 10.46; P = 0.005; CI 8.8–16), carcass disposal method (odds = 6.9; P = 0.001; CI = 3.4–9.8), access to veterinary services (odds = 10.87; P = 0.004; CI = 4.8–15.9) and management system (odds = 2.57; P = 0.001; CI = 1.3–7.5). In summary, the majority (78.7%) of anthrax outbreaks were observed in areas with low veterinary services (χ2 = 8.6162, P = 0.013) within the newly created districts of Nalolo, Mwandi and Luampa.

Identification of Escherichia coli and Related Enterobacteriaceae and Examination of Their Phenotypic Antimicrobial Resistance Patterns: A Pilot Study at A Wildlife–Livestock Interface in Lusaka, Zambia

“…These preliminary findings are uniquely impor-tant given that the wildlife-livestock-human interface is a fertile location for the exchange of disease-causing microorganisms, including pathogens of animal health and zoonotic importance [14][15][16][17][18][19]24,25]. Zoonotic diseases of global importance have previously been shown to be transmitted at this interface, including rabies, Ebola, anthrax, trypanosomiasis and tuberculosis [14][15][16][17][18][19][26][27][28][29]. This complex disease situation is compounded by the presence of AMR [1,8].…”

Lay perceptions, beliefs and practices linked to the persistence of anthrax outbreaks in cattle in the Western Province of Zambia

“…Furthermore, Zambia is categorised under the countries where the problem of anthrax in Africa has reached a hyper-endemic state given the incessant and the long-drawn-out outbreak periods that seem unceasing in the recent years (World Anthrax Data Site 2007 ). The disease has had a modifying effect across families, public health institutions and ecotourism in the affected areas of the Western Province as well as other parts of Zambia, such as the Luangwa Valley (Kamboyi 2015 ). Despite the Western Province being the most sparsely populated place in Zambia, with a human population density of less than five people per square kilometre (IUCN 2003 ), outbreaks and occurrence of anthrax in cattle are markedly more noticeable in this area than any other area in Zambia.…”

“…The cattle population in the Western Province is estimated to be over 760 000 but is continuously under serious threat not only to anthrax but also to contagious bovine pleuralpneumonia among other diseases (National Livestock Epidemiology and Information Centre 2015 ). The place has the highest incidence and prevalence of anthrax in Zambia, with cultural practices and beliefs of the local people being identified as significant risk factors coupled with the ecological set-up (Kamboyi 2015 ; Munang’andu et al 2012 ; Siamudaala et al 2006 ). The disease endemicity is a result of appropriate mix of environmental and epidemiological factors.…”

An Estimate of Global Anthrax Prevalence in Livestock: A Meta-analysis

“…The latter might feature grazing over several infectious sites or, otherwise, on one former carcass site carrying the different genotypes from the body fluids of the dead animal [20,40]. The test was sequentially attempted to detect B. anthracis through blood agar culture and Gram staining, which was then affirmed by multiplex PCR [17]. Tests were examined using MLVA and SNPs.…”

“…This meta-analysis showed that the collective prevalence estimate from 1992 to 2020 was 24%. It is observed from the pooled publications (Figure -2) that the global prevalence of anthrax varies between 2% and 44%, and atmospheric temperature, soil characteristics, rainfall, and river floods contribute to the spread of the pathogen and have a profound effect on the disease [17,42,43]. However, the effects of precipitation or vegetative green-up on bacterial physiology Available at www.veterinaryworld.org/Vol.14/May-2021/26.pdf or miniature nature to drive anthrax outbreaks are unknown [44].…”