In humans both the levels and activity of the ␣-subunit of the hypoxia-inducible transcription factor (HIF-␣) are regulated by its post-translation hydroxylation as catalyzed by iron-and 2-oxoglutarate (2OG)-dependent prolyl and asparaginyl hydroxylases (PHD1-3 and factor-inhibiting HIF (FIH), respectively). One consequence of hypoxia is the accumulation of tricarboxylic acid cycle intermediates (TCAIs). In vitro assays were used to assess non-2OG TCAIs as inhibitors of purified PHD2 and FIH. Under the assay conditions, no significant FIH inhibition was observed by the TCAIs or pyruvate, but fumarate, succinate, and isocitrate inhibited PHD2. Mass spectrometric analyses under nondenaturing conditions were used to investigate the binding of TCAIs to PHD2 and supported the solution studies. X-ray crystal structures of FIH in complex with Fe(II) and fumarate or succinate revealed similar binding modes for each in the 2OG co-substrate binding site. The in vitro results suggest that the cellular inhibition of PHD2, but probably not FIH, by fumarate and succinate may play a role in the Warburg effect providing that appropriate relative concentrations of the components are achieved under physiological conditions.In humans and other mammals, the ␣ heterodimeric hypoxia-inducible transcription factor (HIF) 4 (1) regulates the oxygen-dependent transcription of an array of genes, including those encoding for enzymes involved in glycolysis and those proteins involved in oxygen delivery. The HIF- subunit (HIF-) is identical to aryl hydrocarbon nuclear translocator, and its levels are oxygen-independent. Both the levels and transcriptional activity of the ␣-subunit (HIF-␣) are oxygen-regulated, and hydroxylation of human HIF-␣ at one of two prolyl residues (Pro-402 or Pro-564 in human HIF-1␣) (2, 3) within the oxygen-dependent degradation domain enables binding of HIF-␣ to the von Hippel-Lindau protein, the targeting element of an ubiquitin-protein isopeptide ligase complex. Subsequent ubiquitylation leads to proteasomal degradation of HIF-␣ (for recent reviews see Refs. 4 -7). In humans this mechanism is augmented by hydroxylation of an asparaginyl residue in the C-terminal transcriptional activation domain of HIF-1␣ (8); this modification blocks the interaction of HIF-1␣ with the transcriptional co-activator CBP/p300 so disabling HIF-mediated transcription. During hypoxia, the reduction or ablation of HIF hydroxylase activity leads to accumulation of HIF-1␣, dimerization with HIF-1, and consequent transcription of genes involved in the hypoxic response. Hydroxylation of human HIF-1␣ is catalyzed by four Fe(II)-and 2-oxoglutarate (2OG)-dependent dioxygenases (9, 10), which use molecular oxygen and the tricarboxylic acid cycle intermediate (TCAI) 2OG as co-substrates to produce CO 2 and the TCAI succinate as co-products (Fig. 1). Of the HIF hydroxylases, i.e. three prolyl hydroxylases (PHD1, -2, and -3) (11-13) and one asparaginyl hydroxylase (factor-inhibiting HIF (FIH)) (8, 14), PHD2 is proposed to be the most important...